International Conference on ‘Integral Humanism: Perspectives of Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain’

March 4-5, 2024 at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

India Foundation, in collaboration with Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay Chair at Banaras Hindu University, and supported by the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), organised an International Conference on ‘Integral Humanism: Perspectives of Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain’ on March 4-5, 2024. The conference provided an academic forum to discuss the Indian and Western perspectives on ‘Integral Humanism’, particularly focussing on the views of Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain. It aimed to explore various dimensions of the concept of ‘Integral Humanism’, including its social, philosophical and political dimensions along with its economic implications.

Under the broader rubric of Integral Humanism, the Inaugural Address of the conference on March 04, 2024, was delivered by Prof. Anil Sahasrabudhe, Chairman, National Educational Technology Forum. He focused on Integral Humanism, linking it to the Indian knowledge systems and sustainable development of the society. Discussing the praxis of Integral Humanism in Indian governance, he explained the significance of National Education Policy and its blending of value-based education with holistic development of the human being.

Dr. Ram Madhav, President, India Foundation, delivered the Keynote Address in the Inaugural Session of the  Conference. He emphasized on the philosophical foundations of Integral Humanism as propounded by Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain. He highlighted upon the idea of ‘Integral Humanism’, and delved on the convergences and divergences of both the thinkers. He explained how Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay developed the idea of ‘Integral Humanism’ from the concept of ‘Dharma’, while Jacques Maritain derived his theory of ‘Integral Humanism’ from ‘Christendom’. Despite the cultural differences, both the thinkers displayed striking similarities in their thought and raised common concerns sharing a commitment to the holistic development of human beings within the framework of a just and harmonious society.

The Inaugural Session was chaired by Prof. Arun Kumar Singh, Registrar, Banaras Hindu University. Prof. Tej Pratap Singh, Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay Chair at Banaras Hindu University, delivered the Welcome Address. The Inaugural Session of the conference brought together eminent academicians and senior scholars, thinkers and philosophers from across India and abroad to deliberate on the theory and praxis of Integral Humanism as it has evolved both in India and the West. The conference was attended by eminent faculty members, research scholars, and students of Banaras Hindu University, and eminent citizens of Varanasi.

Dr. Ram Madhav, President, India Foundation, chaired the Plenary Session on ‘Integral Humanism of Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain: A Comparative Study’ on the first day of the conference. The session was addressed by eminent scholars including Prof. Chandrakala Padia, Former Vice Chancellor, Maharaja Ganga Singh University, Prof. Timothy Samuel Shah, Distinguished Research Scholar in Politics, University of Dallas, and Mr. Come Carpentier, Distinguished Fellow, India Foundation. The speakers elaborated on the philosophical, social and cultural roots of Integral Humanism, both in the worldview of Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain. Through a structured comparative analysis of both the thinkers, they highlighted the overlapping spaces in their worldview, which provided promising avenues for further research on the subject, and showed the possibility of sparking a global dialogue on Integral Humanism.

The Plenary Session was followed by two parallel sessions of academic paper presentations by young scholars, budding researchers and professors, on the broad theme of Integral Humanism. Scholars from various academic institutions put forth their arguments and ideas about Integral Humanism, situating them either in a comparative analysis or by developing on the practical and theoretical aspects of Integral Humanism. The two parallel sessions were chaired by Prof. Amarnath Mohanty, Head, Department of Political Science, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), and Dr. Guru Prakash Paswan, Visiting Fellow, India Foundation.

On March 05, 2024, Day 2 of the Conference began with the Special Keynote Session on the theme of the conference. The Special Keynote Address was delivered by Prof. Santishree Pandit, Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, Jawaharlal Nehru University. The session was chaired by Prof. R C Sinha, Former Chairman, Indian Council for Philosophical Research. Prof. Pandit delved into the spiritual and cultural roots of the idea of Integral Humanism. The session was moderated by Dr. Sonu Trivedi, Distinguished Fellow, India Foundation.

The first working session on ‘Social Dimension of Integral Humanism’ was addressed by Prof. Shri Prakash Singh, Director, South Campus, University of Delhi, and Archbishop Dr. Felix Machado, Diocese of Vasai, India. The session was chaired by Prof. Tej Pratap Singh, Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay Chair at BHU. The session sought to take a deep dive into the socio-cultural framework of Integral Humanism and contextualize its tropes in the respective Indian and Christian religious frameworks.

The second working session was on the theme ‘Philosophical and Political Aspects of Integral Humanism’. The session was chaired by Prof. R. C. Sinha, Former Chairman, Indian Council for Philosophical Research. It was addressed by Prof. Claude Vishnu Spaak, Head, Philosophy and Sociology Department, Sorbonne University, and Prof. K. Jayaprasad, Dean, School of Global Studies and former Pro-Vice Chancellor of Central University of Kerala.

The third working session was themed ‘Economic Implications of Integral Humanism’. The session was addressed by Prof. Gopa Kumar, Former Vice-Chancellor, Central University of Kerala, Prof. Sanjay K. Jha, Dean, School of National Security Studies at Central University of Gujarat, and Mr. Alexis Rostand, Managing Director, Eiffel Investment Group. Prof. H. K. Singh, Dean, Faculty of Commerce, BHU, chaired the session. The economic policies of the state, the concept of Antyodaya, and the centrality of dignity of an individual in formulation of policies driven by the ideas of Integral Humanism were some of the discussion points that featured prominently in the session.

Through their analysis and critical appreciation of the works of both Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain, the speakers in the conference explained how Integral Humanism, as a philosophical and political concept, finds expression in the works of thinkers from diverse cultural and ideological backgrounds. Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay, a key thinker of Bharatiya tradition, developed the concept of Integral Humanism in the context of post-independence India. Rooted in Indian cultural and spiritual traditions, his integral humanism emphasizes the integration of material progress with spiritual and ethical values. According to Deendayal Upadhyay, “body, mind, intelligence and the soul – these four make up an individual which are all integrated. We cannot think of each part separately.” The concept of Integral humanism as developed by Deendayal Upadhyay looks upon life as an integrated whole.

The comparative analysis of Integral Humanism as articulated by Deendayal Upadhyay and Jacques Maritain reveals the universality of certain principles despite the cultural and religious diversity of their contexts. Both thinkers offer valuable insights into the promotion of human dignity, ethical governance, and the integration of material and spiritual dimensions in the pursuit of a just society. The conference marked the initiation of a global dialogue across cultures and civilizations, inspired by the idea of Integral Humanism.

Prof. Binda D. Paranjpe, Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, BHU, chaired the Valedictory Session of the conference. The Valedictory Address was delivered by Prof. Shri Prakash Singh, Director, South Campus, University of Delhi. Prof. Singh shed light on the continuing significance of Integral Humanism for the shaping of India’s academic discourse and explained its potential to transform Indian public policy and governance. Prof. S. N. Sankhwar, Director, Institute of Medical Sciences, BHU, attended the session as the Guest of Honour. The concluding remarks were delivered by Dr. Sonu Trivedi, Distinguished Fellow, India Foundation.

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Interview with H.E. Mr. Ranil Wickremesinghe, President of Sri Lanka, on Indian Ocean

Shekhar Sinha: Excellency, thank you very much for giving us time to just pose a few questions. Yesterday, you made a very strong pitch, warning that the intense geopolitical competition in the region has the possibility of spilling over into the Indian Ocean. You also expressed concern over what is happening in West Asia. In your opinion, what are the chances of this spilling over, and can the Indian Ocean region remain a zone of peace in this kind of situation?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: The Indian Ocean must remain a zone of peace. What has happened in my view on the situation in West Asia is because of the American backing of the war in Gaza and the bombing. It is not American’s backing Israel, which everyone expects, and which America does. But because of the US backing for the Gaza war, which has created a lot of prejudice and antagonism against the US, especially amongst the Indian Ocean littorals, where you have the Islamic countries all the way down to Indonesia. The popular reaction is against the US. Now, even if the governments want to maintain close cooperation, it may not be possible for a few years. Remember, few years count a lot in geopolitics. Two years is big in geopolitics, so that’s really going to be an issue for the US. Secondly, as I said, the West tried to break Russia economically, but Russia has succeeded in coming into the Indian Ocean. They already had a good relationship with India, which is continuing and they now have a strong relationship with China. They also have good relations with a lot of other countries in the region, especially with Iran, and they have come into the Bay of Bengal. So, in a way, America has brought Russia in here, and they have created antagonism against themselves. China has been there anyway, and Iran is also active. So, it’s going to be difficult. For the US, especially this year, which is the election year, they can’t be very active. So, two years out with antagonism when the new administration comes or the present administration changes its policy. And two-three years can have a big impact. As Harold Wilson said, “one week is a long time in politics.”

Shekhar Sinha: So that brings me to the next question. How can countries in the IOR, the immediate littorals, keep out of this great power competition?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: I think we have all got to agree on some basics and we’ve worked it. This does not mean that great powers should not be there in the Indian Ocean. Like India, they have to be in the ocean, and they will be there, and they are taking part in exercises like against the Somali pirates. But basically, we must agree on the freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean and how we control great power rivalry in the area. India and Sri Lanka especially have been very active from the 1940s, from the time of independence. Other countries, like South Africa, I think we can talk to them. You can also talk with countries like the US, China and all others. If we agree, then others have to fall in line. We are not saying don’t be there, don’t have your bases. China has bases. Japan has one base. You can’t say no to them. America has one in Asia, but we have to control what happens.

Shekhar Sinha: Do you recommend that our immediate 4-6 countries who are impacted by this geopolitical competition or likely to be impacted, should have a consensus generating mechanism?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: We should have a consensus generating mechanism, I think, for three things: political issues, trade and for ecology, which is a big issue now.

Shekhar Sinha: Do you envision something like an EU-type of parliament?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: I do not think we need to have an EU-type of model, but there can be understandings and agreements. I can’t see Indian Ocean countries forming a parliament of that nature. It is just too big. I mean basically, we have very big numbers. We have India on one hand, then there’s Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Iran. All are big countries and we are not even looking at the East African coast. But it will be a powerful one by 2050. My idea is going to be powerful. India will have, as I mentioned, a GDP that might even go up by about 8 times. Indonesia will go up, so just imagine if others too also go up four times.

Shekhar Sinha: Sincerely hope so. That brings me to the immediate neighbourhood. Do you see the requirement of a joint HADR type of organisation so that we can come to the assistance of let’s say, Bay of Bengal?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: We should work on it. I think in time to come, Maldives is going to be in trouble. Maybe even Seychelles. I think we have to do it. We have to have these agreements. Basically, one thing that worries me is the melting of the Himalayas and the impact on Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and on the Bay of Bengal.

Shekhar Sinha: What is your view on, let’s say, intertwining of the economies of Indian Ocean countries or maybe the immediate neighbourhood?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: We are for it. That’s why we are upgrading our agreement with India from FTA to the Comprehensive Economic and Technological Agreement. We also want to enhance our agreements with Bangladesh. We are applying to RCEP, so that from India all the way to Japan and Australia will be in one free trade zone. We have to work this out. Of course, India didn’t join RCEP, but I’m sure RCEP would be more than happy to have some agreement with India and Bangladesh. So, let’s say, at least from India, from Mumbai all the way to Tokyo and down to Melbourne, let’s have an agreement.

Shekhar Sinha: That I think is a very workable proposition.

Ranil Wickremesinghe: That’s what we have to do, yes.

Shekhar Sinha: Just one more question related to this. Do you see any specific 2-3 points which the island nations would like India to lend their hand in?
Ranil Wickremesinghe: Others are small island nations. But with us, we are looking at closer integration with India. That’s why we are looking at connectivity, financial connectivity, energy connectivity, land connectivity. So that this is the age in which countries work closely. Bangladesh already has with India, so Sri Lanka too will work on this.

Shekhar Sinha: Last question, if you permit. I know you have to leave shortly for the airport. We, you know, with Sri Lanka have been very good at handling the big power competition or rivalry so to say and you have been at the apex for so many years in various capacities. Do you think that it is now possible for Sri Lanka to have a role in reducing the friction between these 2-3 countries?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: I think those countries have to do it themselves. India and China had a very good relationship. I think there are few outstanding issues. What we can do is to ask them to sort it out. But I think getting into the middle of it, that is not our field. but I think there has been a lot of, I must say in the last 5-10 years I’ve seen a lot of interaction between India and China. We could ask for a few areas, especially the Himalayas that have to be sorted out. We would like to help in any way, if it would make a difference. All of a sudden Asia comes up with two big powers coming in here, but let’s see how we can work it out. It will take a bit of time but we all hope it can be done. And actually, the India Foundation is more than good to start talking on these issues.

Shekhar Sinha: How do you see the Indian Ocean’s role in the larger Indo-Pacific construct?

Ranil Wickremesinghe: The Indian Ocean has been quite different from the Pacific, but we are connected. We have to accept that. It’s a different one, and for thousands of years, it’s sort of evolved. I mean, basically if you look at it in that context, I think we should build on what is there. Now look at India. You had linkages all the way down to South Africa; Indians have gone down there. They are out there in Australia. We have people. It’s easy for us to sit down, I think and talk it over. It’s different in the Pacific Islands as they’re getting together. They haven’t had those cultural relations. And if you look at it basically, the Ramayana has taken you all the way to Vietnam. Theravada Buddhism has also taken us all the way to Vietnam. So, these are type of links we have. And remember, it is from India that Buddhism went to China; the Taoist Temple is one such example, even in Tibet. So, these links are there within Asia and it is very big. It was the Arab traders and the Indians who’ve been trading with each other. Such a unique relationship exists maybe in the Mediterranean, but certainly not between the Atlantic powers or between the Pacific. So, we have something to build on. And we’ve also been part of the British Empire or the Dutch Empire or the French Empire, so we can work on it.

Brief Bios:

  • His Excellency Mr. Ranil Wickremesinghe is the President of Sri Lanka.
  • Vice Admiral (Retd.) Shekhar Sinha is the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, India Foundation.
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The Notion of Welfare by State in Early India

 

Introduction

The concept of a welfare state is considered a modern formulation, wherein, to reduce the ill-effects of an industrial society, the state provides basic provisions for its citizens, through interventions in healthcare, education, employment, housing, old age pension etc. Otto von Bismarck, who served as the first chancellor of the German Empire, is usually credited with the establishment of the first modern welfare state of an industrial society in the 1880s by rolling out several social welfare programs for ordinary Germans. However, the roots of such a concept go back to ancient India, wherein the notion that the protection of life and livelihood of its subjects is the prime responsibility of the state, was deeply ingrained in the socio-political thought of that time.

In the sixth century BCE, Gautam Buddha had recommended that the king should adopt measures for the upliftment of the living conditions of the people. Political treatises like Arthashastra instruct a king to place the welfare of his subjects among his foremost duties and expend state treasury on public works. The Mauryan ruler Ashoka undertook several welfare activities including the provision of medical facilities for the well-being of his subjects and also propounded a policy of Dhamma through his edicts, for promoting an atmosphere of concord and harmony in the society. Apart from Ashokan inscriptions, some other epigraphical records provide evidence of the welfare programmes undertaken by the Mauryan state. These are only a few examples that highlight some of the best practices that existed in early India.

The Notion of Welfare and State in Ancient India

Well-being or welfare of all is a recurrent theme in ancient Indian doctrines. Religious texts as well as various secular treatises of the ancient times are replete with concern for the happiness of every individual and society at large. The Dharmashastras emphasise that the well-being of an individual and the entire society can be achieved by the pursuit of the fourfold Purusharthas i.e. the great aims of human endeavour, at an individual level. These are – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha which can be roughly translated as moral behaviour, wealth, worldly pleasures and salvation. An individual can have a meaningful sustained life and even achieve salvation after life, by earnestly pursuing these goals. Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhist philosophy, advocated the Atthanga-magga or the Noble Eight-fold path as a way of removing the root cause of suffering and overcoming desire. This path is actually the Middle Path of moderation between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism which can lead to the attainment of ‘nibbana’ or salvation i.e. deliverance from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. It consists of the right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Apart from these spiritual interpretations of welfare, the close connection between the overall happiness and material conditions of people is recognised and the development of material well-being too is emphasised in these philosophical discourses.

The period around the sixth century BCE witnessed the emergence of several territorial states in north India. This process was accompanied by the rise of urban centres and expansion of agriculture and trade, leading to increase in socio-economic stratification. Buddhist and Jain texts enumerate 16 powerful mahajanapadas or states that flourished in India in the sixth century BCE, and try to offer an explanation for the process of state formation. According to Mahabharata (Velakar, 1948), state is a creation of gods and initially Virajas, but later Prithu was chosen as the King by sages, to purge an anarchical situation encapsulated in the term, matsyanyaya (law of the fish). Buddhist canonical texts provide an anthropological interpretation for the creation of states in Digha Nikaya (the book of long sayings) which envisages a type of a social contract, close to the one propounded by modern European political thinkers. In the Agganna Sutta (‘pertaining to beginnings’) it is stated that in face of an anarchical situation, men deliberated and elected a Mahasammatta, the Great Elect, to enforce justice for which they offered him a share of their harvest. With passage of time he became the Dharmaraj (the righteous king) and brought happiness to men by establishing Dharma i.e. rule of law. In the Cakkavatti-sihanada Sutta, the cakkavatti or universal monarch is hailed as the guardian of ethical authority. It is divulged that in order to solve social problems and dispel economic inequalities caused by inequitable distribution of wealth, the state has the right to enforce legislative power (Walshe, 1995).

At a general level, Buddha was aware of the importance of material well-being of an individual and the society at large. He recognised that if the poor are not able to produce wealth, it leads to poverty, which is at the root of immorality, theft, falsehood, violence, hatred, cruelty, etc. In Digha Nikaya he recommended some measures for eradication of poverty, such as provision of grain and other facilities to farmers, providing capital to traders and adequate wages to labour. These welfare activities provide a justification for the state and the taxation system. Like a pragmatist, he recognised that the way to control crimes in the society was to uplift the living condition of people by purging them from poverty and the king or state had a role to play in this scheme.

Kautilya’s Arthashastras and its Ideal King

Arthashastra, the Sanskrit classic text on statecraft, is traditionally considered a work of the fourth century BCE, written by Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya, the chief minister of the first emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya. This political treatise is normative in nature, containing detailed prescriptions and proscriptions for the administration of a state by its ruler. It consists of 15 adhikaranas or books dealing with various aspects of internal administration (tantra), relations with the neighbouring states (avapa) and other miscellaneous subjects. It categorically states that artha (material well-being secured through livelihood) is superior to dharma (spiritual well-being) and kama (worldly pleasures) as the latter two are dependent on it (Singh, 2008: 322). It contains the description of the circumstances of the origin of monarchy in Book I. It states that when people were oppressed by the matsyanyaya (law of the fish according to which the bigger fish swallow the smaller fish) they chose Manu as their King and fixed one-sixth portion of the grain and one tenth of their goods and money as his share. It further proclaims ‘Kings who receive this share are able to ensure the well-being of their subjects’ [Arthashastra 1.13.5-7]. This theory seems to describe something like an original contract for the establishment of monarchy in which people agree to pay taxes to a monarch so that he can ensure security and well-being i.e. yoga-kshema of all.

This manual on statecraft frequently refers to the obligations of a ruler towards his subjects and lays down three-fold duties for him in the internal administration of the country viz. raksha, palana and yoga-kshema. Raksha primarily means the protection of the state from external aggression as well as protection of the person and property of his subjects. The entire Book Four, called kantakashodhan, is devoted to suppression of crime and protection of people from anti-social elements like deceitful artisans and traders, thieves, dacoits and murderers, as well as their protection from natural calamities such as fire, floods etc (Kangle, [1965] 2010:117). Palana can be interpreted as the provision of security by maintenance of law and order within the state. Book Three is concerned with law and its administration as it contains a complete code of law. Yoga-kshema implies the idea of welfare, well-being, including the idea of safeguarding the happiness and prosperity of the people. In Book One it is enjoined ‘In the happiness of his subjects lies the happiness of the king; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treats as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects’ [Arthashastra 1.19.34].

The political treatise defines welfare as ‘the increase in economic activity, the protection of livelihood, the protection of vulnerable segments of society, consumer protection, the prevention of harassment of citizens, and the welfare of prisoners and labor’. In order to ensure the economic well-being of the people through increased opportunities of livelihood, Book Two advised the ruler to undertake a host of productive activities. They include activities such as sunyaniveshana i.e. settlement of virgin land; setubandha i.e. building of dams, tanks, wells and other irrigation facilities; vraja i.e. providing pasture for cattle; vanikpatha i.e. opening trade-routes and ensuring safety on them; khani i.e. working of mines; exploiting timber and elephant forests; construction of places of punyasthana or pilgrimage, groves and roads for traffic both by land and water; setting up of market towns, industries and manufacturing units and so on [Arthashastra 2.1.1,19-20]. The king is advised to provide new settlers with seeds, cattle, tax concessions and remissions in initial years and even cash in form of loans to help them reclaim land and expand agriculture [Arthashastra 2.1.13-14]. The king may provide sites, roads, timber and other necessary things to those who construct reservoirs on their own record. On one hand these undertakings provide livelihood to people and furthered the welfare of the subjects, on the other hand they expanded the economy and augmented the resources of the state. It is recognised that a flourishing economy is beneficial for both the state and its people.

Arthashastra advises kings to take into account the welfare of all beings in formulating state policies. The interests of the subjects should be allowed to prevail over the interest of the state. It directs that the sale of commodities, imported or indigenous, should be arranged in such a manner that it is beneficial for the subjects while any profit that may be harmful to the subjects should be avoided [Arthashastra 2.16.4-6 & 4.2.27,35]. A paternalistic ideal is set before the ruler. In accordance with this attitude, it is argued that the kingdom will prosper only if the King regards his subjects with the same concern as a father regards his children. It is stated that when the subjects are struck down by natural calamities, the ruler should take care of them like a father [Arthashastra 4.3.43]. The third chapter of Book Four provides details of measures to be taken for the relief of the subjects in case of natural calamities like floods, fire, epidemic, famines etc (Kangle, [1965] 2010: 234). It recognises that like the head of a family has a responsibility of the extended family, the king or government has a crucial role to play in providing security and maintaining the material well-being of the entire country and its people. It is laid down that the king should provide maintenance for the orphans, minors, the aged, the infirm, the afflicted and those in distress, who have no one to look after them. He is further asked to provide subsistence to the helpless women when they are carrying and also to the children they give birth to as well as childless women [Arthashastra 2.1.18-26]. It asserts that the King shall protect agriculturists from the molestation of oppressive fine, forced labor and unjust exactions from corrupt officials; herds of cattle from thieves, animals and cattle disease; clear the roads from molestations of courtiers, robbers etc and even protect them from being destroyed by herds of cattle. Punishment is laid down for officers who are responsible for extortion from the subjects [Arthashastra 2.9.15-16]. The text lays down the minimum wages for laborers and herdsmen as one pana (silver coin) and a quarter per month over and above the food for them and their families [Arthashastra 2.24.28]. It elaborates rules concerning the proper treatment to be given to dasas (slaves), and debt bonded labour, both male and female, and provides appropriate penalties for their violation. These rules insist on a humane treatment for various kinds of slaves and emphasise their right to freedom on the payment of a ransom-amount. The text provides for stringent checks against fraudulent practices in trade like adulterating goods or manipulating prices or giving short weight and measures etc. Severe punishments are laid down for prison officers exceeding their authority by harassing, assaulting or maiming prisoners or criminally approaching a female prisoner or even preventing them from taking their meals or answering nature’s calls [ Arthashastra 4.9.21-27].

The rules about the construction of prison-house include construction of separate wards for males and females, with halls, sanitary arrangements, provision for protection against fire and even provision for worship [Arthshastra 2.5.5-6]. It is stated that out of the various kinds of tortures recommended for securing a confession of a crime, only one torture is to be applied on any one day and there is to be no torture on two successive days. Torture is prohibited in the case of a pregnant women or a woman in the first month after delivery. The King is advised to use his power of danda i.e. coercive power of the state, to ensure the protection of the subjects and to enable the weak to hold their own against the strong. He is nevertheless advised to use danda with great care as a just use of this power secures the protection of people along with the happiness of the ruler, while its unjust use could have serious implications leading to discontentment or disaffection of his people, the most serious being a revolt of the subjects against the ruler [Arthashastra 1.4.12].

The text lays a lot of emphasis on starting productive enterprises and pursuing successful economic policies that create means of livelihood under state control. These recommendations are not just altruistic measures, but have a clear aim to augment the revenues of the state and appropriating surplus for the state treasury. At the same time the treatise warns, a King who impoverishes his own people or angers them by unjust exactions will lose their loyalty [Arthashastra 7.5.27]. Thus, a fine balance needs to be maintained between the welfare of the people and enhancing the resources of the state. The maintenance of law and order through an efficient administrative as well as just judicial machinery is one of the primary responsibilities of a state. The entire Book Four is devoted to the suppression of criminal activities with provision of punishment to thirty kinds of criminals as well as other anti-social elements like deceitful merchants, corrupt officials etc, who are identified as thorns of the society. It is recognised, ‘A king meting out unjust punishment is hated by the people he terrorises while one who is too lenient is held in contempt; whoever imposes just and deserved punishment is respected and honoured [Arthashastra 1.4.7-10]. While exploring issues of social welfare, the text advises the king to create buffer stocks of grains and other products in state stores to prevent a wide fluctuation in prices and also to create reserve stock which could be distributed during natural calamities, giving tax exemptions to the affected population and initiating public projects such as building forts around major strategic holdings, construction of irrigation waterways for its people. It also lays down regulations for the protection of wild life, providing a long list of punishments for cruelty to animals, provisions for veterinary doctors, creation of animal sanctuaries etc.

The ideal ruler, according to Arthashastra is one who takes care of his subjects like a father, invests in the economy to augment the resources of the state as well as its people, maintains law and order through an effective administrative machinery and a just judicial system, guards against fraudulent practices and provides support to ‘ those who have necessarily to be maintained’ by the state [Arthashastra 1.12.1]. It enumerates the seven essential elements of the state as svamin, the King; amatya, the minister; janapada, the territory settled with people; durga, the fortified capital; kosa, the treasury; danda, the army or justice and mitra, the ally. However, it needs to be kept in mind that this manual on statecraft is normative in nature. The detailed prescriptions and injunctions are mere recommendations for a king which could be put into practice by a well-intentioned ruler. In a monarchical setup a great deal often depended on the personality and will of the particular ruler. Instead of reflecting the reality of the times the text mirrors the ideal of its times which aims at welfare of all.

Ashoka and his Dhamma

The well-being of his people through the propagation of dhamma was the primary concern of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions are divided into two main categories, the 14 major rock edicts, including Separate Rock Edict 1 and 2 of Dhauli and Jaugada, and the seven pillar edicts that are discovered in different places all over India with minor variations. These inscriptions provide an insight into Ashoka’s ideas about his role as a king and even his own assessment of his success at dissemination of Dhamma. The ideals of kingship as discerned through his edicts on Dhamma include ensuring the welfare of all beings and his subjects in this world and the next. In Separate Rock Edict 1, exhibiting a paternal attitude he expresses, ‘All men are my children. Just as with regard to my own children, I desire that they may be provided with all kinds of welfare and happiness in this world and the next world, I desire the same for all men’. He sought to ensure peoples’ welfare by planting beneficial medicinal herbs, roots and fruit bearing trees and digging wells along the roads, building resting places and providing medical care for people as well as animals in his empire (Major rock edict 2). Ashoka created a special cadre of dhamma mahamatras in the 13th year after his consecration, to spread the message of Dhamma within the kingdom and among border people. They were given the responsibility of promoting the welfare of prisoners and releasing those who were afflicted, aged or had children, organising charities and working for the welfare and happiness of all sects (Major rock edict 5). The ceremony of Dhamma is described as consisting of proper courtesy to slaves and servants, obedience to mother and father, generosity towards friends, relatives and acquaintances as well as Brahmanas and Shramanas, and abstaining from killing living beings (Singh, 2008: 352).

Generation of an atmosphere of concord and mutual respect among people of different religious communities is an important aspect of Ashoka’s Dhamma, which aims at the welfare of all. In Major rock edict 12 he urges people to exercise restraint in praising their own sect and in criticising other sects, while trying to honour and understand each other’s religion. In the 6th pillar Edict, Ashoka states that the purpose of his edicts was a concern for the welfare and happiness of his subjects, who, if they ordered their lives according to the principles of Dhamma, would attain happiness in this world and in the next world too. Major Rock Edict 6 and Separate Rock Edict 2, refer to the debt that he owes to all living beings, which he wanted to discharge by fulfilling his most important duty of promoting the welfare of the whole world, remaining in touch with people’s affairs at all times and promptly dispatching public business. He instructs ‘At all times, whether I am eating, or am in the women’s apartments, or in my inner apartments, or at the cattle-shed, or in my carriage, or in my gardens- wherever I may be, my informants should keep me in touch with public business’ (Major rock edict 6). It is through the practice of such a Dhamma, Ashoka desired to enhance the well-being of all men as well as animals inhabiting his empire.

Other Inscriptional Testimonies

The epigraphical testimonies of Sohgaura, Mahasthan and Junagarh\Girnar inscriptions provide evidence of some of the welfare activities undertaken by the Mauryan state. The Sohagaura inscription of Gorakhpur is a short inscription of four lines that recorded an order by the mahamatras of Shravasti to distribute and not withhold, the contents of the storehouses of five places—Triveni, Mathura, Chanchu, Modama, and Bhadra, in case of outbreak of drought. The Mahasthan inscription from Bagura district of Bangladesh records an order to the mahamatra of Pundranagar, to take adequate measures to relieve distress caused to people on account of famine. The measures undertaken included the advancing of a loan in coins and distribution of paddy from the granary to help them tide over the calamity (Hazra, 2002:43-60). The Girnar inscription of Junagarh records that the construction of a water reservoir known as the Sudarshana Lake was begun during the time of Chandragupta Maurya and completed during the reign of Ashoka. These famine relief measures and construction of irrigation facilities would have surely provided respite to the distressed population of the concerned area. These inscriptions, along with the internal evidence of Ashokan edicts sufficiently demonstrate that the early Indian state, especially during the Mauryan period, recognised its responsibility and played an active role in advancing the welfare of its subjects. The Mauryan state expended state treasury on the construction and maintenance of roads, wells, and rest-houses, of building irrigation facilities such as the dam on the Sudarshana Lake in Girnar, providing medical treatment for men as well as animals, and planting of mango-groves, banyan trees, medicinal herbs, roots and other useful trees.

Conclusion

The idea of advancement of welfare of people through active state intervention is clearly envisaged in the socio-political doctrines of ancient India. Welfare measures like enhancing economic activities, providing employment opportunities, investing in public works, relief measures during calamities, medical facilities, accountability and accessibility of the king, safeguards against fraudulent practices etc are some of the ideas that comprise the notion of welfare in the texts and inscriptions of early India. While the onus of enhancing mental and spiritual well-being of an individual lies on the concerned person, the responsibility of ensuring material welfare and social justice is largely recognised as the responsibility of the state or the government of the day.

Author Brief Bio: Dr. Pallavi Prasad is a Professor in the Department of History, Satyawati College, University of Delhi.

REFERENCES
● Hazra, K.L. 2002. Buddhism and Buddhist Literature in Early Indian Epigraphy. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
● Hultzch, E. [ 1925] 1969. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Vol. 1, Inscriptions of Asoka. Reprint edition. Delhi: Indological Book House. ● Kane, P.V. [ 1941]. History of Dharmashastra. Vol. 1, Part 2. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
● Kangle, R.P. 1960-65. The Kautiliya Arthasastra. Vol I, II& III. Bombay: University of Bombay.
● Rangarajan, L.N. 1992. The Arthashastra. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ● Rhys Davids, T.W. [1910] 1951. Dialogues of the Buddha. Part II. Sacred Books of the Buddhist Series, Pali Text Society.3rd edn. London: Luzac and Co.
● Shamasastri, R. [1909]1960. Arthashastra of Kautilya. Mysore ● Sharma, R. S. 1983. Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India. Delhi: Macmillan India.
● Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. Delhi: Pearson.
● Thapar, Romila. [ 1963] 1987. Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. 7th rep. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
● Velakar, H.D. 1948. Mahabharat. Vanaparva. XII
● Walshe, Maurice O’ C.1995. The long discourses of the Buddha: a translation of the Digha Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

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Roundtable Discussion with a delegation from Taiwan

India Foundation organised a roundtable discussion on February 29, 2024 with a visiting delegation from Taiwan which included Chih-yu Shih, Professor, Department of Political Science, National Taiwan University; Simon Tengchi CHANG, Professor, Department of Political Science, National Taiwan University and Tien-sze Fang, Associate Professor, Center for General Education, and Deputy Director, Center for India Studies, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan. The theme of the roundtable was “Taiwan Elections and its Impact on Cross-Strait Relations” and the discussion was chaired by Capt Alok Bansal, Director, India Foundation. The discussion was attended by many dignitaries from various prolific backgrounds.

The elections in Taiwan were held on January 13, 2024 for its presidency and 113–seats legislature. The elections resulted in the victory of William Lai from Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) and the opposition party being the Kuomintang (KMT). The roundtable discussion revolved around the understanding of Taiwan politics and its impact on major powers of South Asia and the United States.

Chih-yu Shih, Professor, Department of Political Science, National Taiwan University shared his thoughts from a philosophical perspective about the Taiwanese elections and its impact on the population of Taiwan.

Simon Tengchi CHANG, Professor, Department of Political Science, National Taiwan University in his remarks mentioned about the Taiwan 2024 elections results and its implications on the cross strait relations or the trilateral relations amongst Taiwan-China-United States.

Tien-sze Fang, Associate Professor, Center for General Education, and Deputy Director, Center for India Studies, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, in his remarks, proposed for people-to-people connect between India and Taiwan in order to have a reciprocatory cultural, educational and economical exchange between Taiwan and India.

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The Elephant in the Room

Investigating Consciousness Beyond Reductionism

The India Foundation, University of Padova, and the Italian Buddhist Union co-organised an international conference in Padova, Italy themed, “The Elephant in the Room: Investigating Consciousness Beyond Reductionism” on 21-23 February 2024 in collaboration with Mind and Life Europe, the University of Ottawa and the Mind Care Foundation. This conference is the second edition of a series of international events on this theme launched by the India Foundation  The conference was addressed by 22 of the leading philosophers, scientists, and scholars across various disciplines, including neurophysiology, physics, psychiatry, and philosophy.

The conference began with opening remarks by Dr. Filippo Scianna, President of the Italian Buddhist Union, Mr. Come Carpentier, Distinguished Fellow, India Foundation and Dr. Alberto Voci, Professor, Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Pedagogy and Applied Psychology – FISPPA, University of Padua. All expressed their satisfaction to participate in the event on a subject of deep scientific, philosophical and cultural importance for the future of humankind. Come Carpentier recalled the contributions to the field of some of the intellectual luminaries who taught or studied at the University of Padova since mediaeval times and he highlighted the need to continue and expand the interactions and collaboration between India and the West in the domain of consciousness research, given the seminal contribution that Indian native knowledge systems have made in this area during thousands of years.

Day 1

Session 1: Insights from Contemplative Traditions

The first session was divided into two panels; the first panel was chaired by Marcello Ghilardi, Professor and Researcher in Aesthetics, University of Padua, and featured two speakers, Paavo Pylkkänen, Senior Lecturer in Theoretical Philosophy, School of Bioscience, University of Skövde in Finland and Sangeetha Menon, Professor & Head, NIAS Consciousness Studies Programme, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Paavo Pylkkänen began his address with a brief introduction to the reductionist, non-reductionist, and non-illusionist approaches. He discussed the shortcomings of each approach and spoke of Bohm’s wave theory which indicates that pilot waves guide the particles, inferring the possibility of consciousness guiding the mind. He said, “Information exists all around us but is not meant for us. It’s meant for cells and particles, and it makes things happen even without our awareness”.

Sangeetha Menon narrated briefly the story of Nachiketa from Katha Upanishad explaining the Indic understanding of atma. She spoke of the philosophy behind consciousness and touched upon the implications of Artificial Intelligence in consciousness studies.

The second panel of the session was chaired by Ilaria Malaguti, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Pedagogy, and Applied Psychology – FISPPA, University of Padua, and consisted of two speakers, Bruno Neri, Professor, University of Pisa and Bindu M. Kutty, Professor, Dept. of Neurophysiology, NIMHANS, Incharge Professor and Coordinator of NIMHANS Center for Consciousness Studies in Bangalore, India.

Bruno Neri discussed his study which involves the use of EEG on meditation practitioners during the meditation process and the variations observed based on the techniques of meditation used. He noted a global enhancement of spectral power indicating entrance into a different state of consciousness in Tibetan monks which is distinct from the sleep state. He also found direct effects of meditation on cognitive function and flexibility as well as stability of mind.

Session 2: Beyond Duality

The second session was chaired by Silvia Capodivacca, Researcher in modern and contemporary philosophy of the French and German schools (Nietzsche, Deleuze) at Padova, and included two speakers, Catherine Prueitt, Assistant Professor, University of British Columbia, Canada, and Zoran Josipovic, Adjunct Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, New York University.

Catherine Prueitt spoke from the perspective of the Indian (Pratibhijna) cosmopsychism of Utpaladeva and Dharmakirti clarifying that her approach can be described as a form of priority monism where consciousness is the fundamental individual that defines reality. In other words, she spoke of the Unitary Shiva or the one universal reality. She notes that Shiva tattva is, “consciousness as the infinite variegation able to express itself as any and all manifest worlds” and therefore noted that, according to this approach, space and time are powers of the universal consciousness i.e. they arise out of the processes of universal consciousness.

Zoran Josipovic spoke about the pure awareness and the explicit nature of non-duality stating that consciousness is homogenous and a phenomenon/entity of non-dual reflexivity. He noted, “Inherent non-conceptual reflexivity is unique to consciousness itself, It makes it what it is”

Session 3: Contributions from Physics and Mathematics

The third session was chaired by Marcello Ghilardi, Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology at the University of Padova, and had three speakers, Chetan Prakash, Affiliate Member, Association for Mathematical Consciousness Studies, Emeritus Professor of Mathematics, California State University and Senior Lecturer in Aikido, Donal D. Hoffman, Professor of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine and Federico Faggin, Physicist, Engineer, Inventor and Entrepreneur based in the USA.

Chetan Prakash briefly outlined the history of physics from 19th Century classical physics to 20th century Quantum Theory leading up to a modern realisation, and to a new approach based on the understanding that spacetime has no operational use below Planck’s length (a scale of 10-33 cm and time intervals of 10-43 seconds). Increasing quantum measurement accuracy multiplies the degrees of freedom limited by the blackhole formation. This understanding has led to the formulation of several positive geometries and other mathematical entities. With this background, the Consciousness Realism Hypothesis was introduced, (The world of an agent is a network of consciousness agents) and the experiential dynamics of a single agent was defined by the following formula:

Q (Qualia) = DAP (Decisions Actions Perception)

Donal D. Hoffman further explained the work he and Chetan Prakash were collaborating on, explaining how even within the framework of evolutionary theory, vertical selections go extinct. Elaborating on the limitations of space-time and reductionism as well as on the imminent end of the usability of those approaches as physics and science move forward,  he went a step further to say that quantum theory is not fundamental. The team now proposes to use Markov Kernels to study Qualia.

Federico Faggin emphasised that consciousness can’t be explained via anything that isn’t as simple as itself. He said, “ Consciousness is a quantum property of nature” and “space and time are derivative and emergent properties of consciousness”

Day 2

Session 1 Philosophical and Epistemological Inquiries

The first session of the second day of the conference had two panels. The first panel was chaired by Chiara Mascarello, Associate Professor, Department of Asian and Mediterranean African Studies of the University of Padova and listed three speakers, Kathinka Evers Professor of Philosophy and Senior Researcher, Centre for Research Ethics & Bioethics (CRB), Uppsala University in Sweden; Juan Arnau, Philosopher and Writer, professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain, as well as Riccardo Manzotti, Professor, Department of Business, Law, Economy and Consumer Affairs and Faculty of Communication, IULM University, Italy.

Kathinka Evers commented on the Western perspective towards consciousness. She explained that psychological dissociation has 3 forms, dissociation with nature, with the other, and with the conscious self. In the West consciousness has historically been linked to souls which were held to be exclusive to humans. Among humans too hierarchies were assumed; for instance there were debates as to whether women had souls and Darwin himself classified women between children and men. There was also a hierarchy of races: white men had souls while ‘primitives’ from other continents might not have them to the same degree, according to some racist thinkers. The mindset dictated the bias of Western science which supported it with allegedly factual experimental data, making it easier to justify genocide. From this extreme, the West has now swung to the opposite notion, i.e. panpsychism where even elementary particles are hypothesised to have some form of consciousness. Throughout her talk, Dr Evers highlighted the biases and flaws that ‘Western’ science is susceptible to and should be careful of. She also spoke about the risk of humans creating artificial intelligence with the intent of eventually creating conscious machines. Though she believes that this is not possible anytime soon, she wondered whether people have truly thought about the implications of such a development.

Juan Arnau highlighted the understanding of consciousness from three viewpoints, Mahayana Buddhism, Samkhya Philosophy, and the Philosophy of Science. He broke down the difference between consciousness and mind within the Buddhist teaching where mind and matter are categorised together and separate from consciousness. He also explained the Samkhya perspective which states that intelligence, the self and the mind arise from the interaction between pure consciousness (Purusha) and mind-matter (Prakriti). He commented on the ability of science to know reality stating, “Science doesn’t open the pot to see the stew, it cooks the stew”

Riccardo Manzotti brought a different perspective and approach. He proposed a reductionist physicalist view where the object dictates the mind. He noted that the experience does not have material counterparts, therefore, these can’t be accepted as reality. He spoke of the Causal Self-Referential Theory of Perception, i.e. perceptual content is satisfied by an object only if the object in question has caused the perceptual experience. Anticipating a question on dreams and hallucinations he said, “Dreams are extensions of the existent present, based on past events registered”.

The second panel of the session was chaired by, Andrea Gambarotto, Maria Zambrano Fellow, Department of Philosophy, Centre for Research on Life, Mind and Society, Department of Philosophy, University of the Basque Country (Spain) and consisted of two speakers, Sebastjan Vörös, Associate Professor at the Department of Philosophy, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia and Philip Goff, philosophy professor, Durham University, UK

Sebastjan Vörös explored the potential of Francesco Varela’s concept of Dynamic Systems Theory as a way of understanding consciousness. He elaborated on the crucial aspect of autonomous systems i.e. the circularity of their function and underlined the fact that the living being is situated in the environment. He said, “An organism, by enacting itself, enacts its own meaning”. In other words, a living being brings meaning to the external world in its own context, creating its autonomous identity.

Philip Ghoff gave a virtual address on free will and the evolution of consciousness. He highlighted the mystery of Psycho-Physical Harmony. He explained his version of panpsychism where consciousness is not confined to biological entities but is a fundamental feature of all physical matter. He explained how our current scientific paradigm was designed by Galileo to exclude consciousness. He separated the physical world from its qualities so that we could exhaustively describe it in purely quantitative mathematics.  Galileo appreciated that we can’t capture the qualities we find in our experience in that manner. Therefore, he proposed a radical new theory of reality, according to which the qualities aren’t part of the physical world, that is the domain of science. Rather, they are in the consciousness of the observer. If we now want a science of consciousness, we need to find a way of bringing consciousness back into the domain of science. We need to find a way of bringing back together these two domains that Galileo separated. Panpsychism is one way to go about this. We can’t get consciousness out of physics, but you can get physics out of consciousness.

Session 2: Neuroscientific Hypothesis on Consciousness

The second session of the day had two panels. The first panel was chaired by Nicola de Pisapia, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Padova, and included 2 speakers, Georg Northoff, Philosopher, Neuroscientist and Psychiatrist, University of Ottawa in Canada, and Giuseppe Pagnoni, Associate Professor, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neurosciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy.

Georg Northoff presented his approach towards understanding consciousness, based on a complex multiscale temporal organisation displayed in the brain governed by different timescales. He explained this with an analogy. Imagine a wall with different size windows beyond which you can see a house, depending on which window you look through, you will see a different part of the house with different proportions. Maybe one window gives the view of the entire house, the other might give a view of just part of its roof. This input of information defines our perception. Time scales play the role of similar input points for the way information enters our mind and all these time scales together project information onto our consciousness. Therefore, while not part of the consciousness itself, these time scales act as the key to understanding consciousness or to oversimplify it, acting as a bridge between internal consciousness and external reality.

Giuseppe Pagnoni spoke on the potential role of the free-energy principle in our understanding of meta-awareness, self, and consciousness. Introducing the hierarchical generative model he explained how the mind potentially interacts with the world across various levels of temporal depth. He described the possibility that all our cognitive activity is made up of inferences from our beliefs that are updated every time we interact with the world. These beliefs are expectations of what we are about to encounter. He also spoke about meditation and the case of mind wandering, referring to the difference between intentionally focused thought and an uninterrupted flow of thoughts.

The second panel was chaired by Francesco Tormen, Associate Professor, Department of Asian and Mediterranean African Studies, University of Padua, and had two speakers, Steven Laureys, Neurologist, Neuroscientist, clinical professor of neurology at the Liege University Hospital and Research Director at the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research, and Christof Koch, Meritorious Investigator, Allen Institute, USA.

Steven Laureys spoke on the Neurology of Consciousness. From Coma and near-death experiences to Meditation and Hypnosis. Revealing his team’s observations and findings while studying all these processes. His team’s research broke down consciousness into its content (awareness) and levels (wakefulness) to measure it for their study, where a coma is the state of lowest awareness and wakefulness, followed in ascending order by general anesthesia, stages III-IV of sleep state (along with REM sleep and Lucid dreaming), stages I-II of sleep, drowsiness and finally conscious wakefulness. He broke down the reported experiences of people who faced near-death experiences by distinguishing them from hypnosis, sleep, and meditation on both the experiential level and according to findings from brain mapping techniques used in his study.

Christof Koch presented the fundamentals behind the Integrated Information Theory concerning Consciousness in Nature. He noted that consciousness must be the starting point of any investigation of existence. Here consciousness is not a process, message, neuronal activity pattern, computation or algorithm. He said, “Consciousness is about being while intelligence is about doing”.  Keeping this in mind, he further stated that the seat of consciousness is in the posterior regions of the cortex, since the loss of sense (as in a state of pure presence) corresponds to a nadir in neural activity in those regions. He also pointed out that current artificial intelligence systems can never become conscious due to limitations of hardware and programming. These systems merely perform simulations of a certain kind of consciousness phenomenon and simulations cannot become real.

Day 3

Session 1: Further Insights from Neuroscience

The final session took place on the third day of the conference. The chair of this session was occupied by  Federico Zilio, Research Fellow, FISPPA Department, University of Padova and this session consisted of a panel of three speakers, Ravindra P. Nagendra, Additional Professor, Centre for Consciousness Studies, Dept. of Neurophysiology, NIMHANS, India; Narayanan Srinivasan, Professor at the Department of Cognitive Science, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur and Elena Antonova, Senior Lecturer, Division of Psychology, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University, London, UK.

Ravindra P. Nagendra introduced the unique approach to scientific research applied in NIMHANS where the concepts and ideas are derived from both neuroscience and Indian philosophical insights. These ideas are tested using Neurophysiological as well as Cognitive Neuroscientific techniques. The samples studied are categorised based on a wellness-normal-illness scale and states are divided into Rest, Sleep, task-performing, and meditation. He spoke of their study on wave patterns during sleep cycles amongst experienced and novice meditators, along with a control group of non-meditators. That study showed that practitioners of Vipassana meditation exhibit enhanced slow-wave sleep and REM sleep states across different age groups. Among other points, he emphasised the importance of understanding that the sleep state is a continuity of the self and not a loss of consciousness. Being a state of experience, sleep does not amount to a break in awareness or consciousness.

Srinivasan Narayanan spoke about temporal consciousness. He introduced his work about a nested hierarchical model of multiple timescales that accounts for findings on the timing of cognition and the phenomenology of temporal experience. In doing so a framework that hierarchically combines the three major philosophical positions on time-consciousness (i.e. cinematic, extensional, and retentional) is being developed that can display a common basis for temporal experience. At the first level, there is a fast-updating cinematic level that updates its contents every 30–50 milliseconds, with a slight delay in reference to the outside world. Next is the intermediate level, based on the extensional model, unfolding both in and over time every 300–500 ms. This level is also tied to our phenomenological experience. Finally, at the top, the slow-updating level spans a breadth of 3–5 seconds. This level is modelled after the retentional models in time-consciousness. Concept and belief representations are situated at this level that retains and extends onto the intermediate level. The study is based on two assumptions: one, there are aspects of our conscious experience, which are both in and over time, i.e. not only can we experience time but our experiences themselves dynamically evolve, and two, there is an abstract structure of time, a lawlike dynamic evolution over which our experiences unfold.

Elena Atovnova discussed the importance of staying with the question. She spoke about radical neurophenomenology as the framework for the neuroscience of consciousness. She noted that rigorous science does not necessitate the application of the scientific method within any kind of metaphysical ontology; if we need an ontology of some kind it would be a phenomenological ontology (what is the nature of being). This way we gain the ability to ask new questions without dismissing anything based on prejudiced beliefs about what is ‘real’. She concluded by saying, “The fear of the unknown should be replaced by the wonder of discovering more of ourselves”.

There was a round of discussions at the end of each session across all three days of the conference.

The conference concluded with closing remarks by Professor Marcello Ghilardi, Anmol Mahajan, Research Fellow, India Foundation and Francesco Tormen, Associate Professor at the University of Padua

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7th Indian Ocean Conference – IOC 2024

The 7th Indian Ocean Conference – IOC 2024 was hosted by India Foundation in association with the Ministry of External Affairs of India ; Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Government of Australia; Perth USAsia Centre of Australia and S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies of Singapore on February 9-10, 2024 in Perth, Australia. The theme for this edition of the conference was “Towards a Stable and Sustainable Indian Ocean”.

Over a span of two days, the Conference was addressed by Ministers from 16 countries, including one Head of State, Officials from 16 countries and 6 multilateral organisations. The delegates from over 40 countries attended the Conference.

Day 1 – February 9, 2024

The 7th Indian Ocean Conference – IOC 2024 commenced with the Opening Address by Mr Tim Watts, Assistant Minister of Foreign Affairs, Australia. He expressed his gratitude to India Foundation and Perth USAsia Centre for being partners in organising this Conference. He spoke about the similarities that India and Australia hold with respect to their geographical locations and emphasised on strengthening the Indian Ocean region with respect to maintaining  transparency; adhering to rules and regulations and maintaining meaningful lines of communication to deepen the strategic resilience of the countries in the region.

Pre-Conference Thematic Sessions

Panel 1: Climate Change and the Energy Transition

The first panel of the Pre-Conference Thematic Session was under the theme: “Climate Change and the Energy Transition”. Panel 1 was moderated by Kristin Tilley, Ambassador for Climate Change, Australia. The speakers of the panel included Anil Trigunayat, Former Ambassador, India; Phil Midland, President, IHS International LLC, USA; Tony Worby, CEO Flourishing Oceans, Minderoo Foundation, Australia; Abdulla Isa Al-Abbasi, Director, Energy and Environment Program, Studies and Research Directorate, Bahrain Center for Strategic, International and Energy Studies (DERASAT), Bahrain and Kate O’Shaughnessy, Research Director, Perth USAsia Centre, Australia. The panel discussed the issue of the role of Indian Ocean countries to address the challenges of climate change in the region.

Panel 2: Blue Economy

The second panel of the Pre-Conference Thematic Session was under the theme: “Blue Economy”. Panel 2 was moderated by Gordon Flake, CEO, Perth USAsia Centre, Australia. The speakers of the panel included Anil Wadhwa, Former Ambassador, India; Angela Williamson, Director, Blue Policy and Planning, Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre, Australia; Marie-May Jeremie, CEO, Seychelles Conservation and Adaptation Trust, Seychelles; Timothy Walker, Maritime Project Leader and Senior Researcher, Institute for Security Studies, South Africa and Asha de Vos, Founder, Oceanswell, Sri Lanka. The panel discussed the participation of the Indian Ocean countries in ensuring their responsibility to nurture the blue economy in a sustainable manner.

Panel 3: Managing Global Commons

The third panel of the Pre-Conference Thematic Session was under the theme: “Managing Global Commons”. Panel 3 was moderated by Sujan Chinoy, Director General, Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, India. The speakers of the panel included Sinderpal Singh, Senior Fellow, RSIS, Singapore; Frederic Grare, Senior Researcher, National Security College, Australian National University, France; Jacqueline Espenilla, Director, The University of the Philippines’ Institute for Maritime Affairs and Law of the Sea, Philippines; Manmohan Parkash, Former Senior Advisor, Office of President, Asian Development Bank, India and Russell Reichelt, Australian Sherpa High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, Australia. The panel discussed the role of Indian Ocean countries to collaborate and work together to manage and share the resources in the Indian Ocean region.

Panel 4: Partnerships for a Resilient Region

The fourth panel of the Pre-Conference Thematic Session was under the theme: “Partnerships for a Resilient Region”. Panel 4 was moderated by Sunaina Singh, Member, Board of Trustees, India Foundation, India. The speakers of the panel included David Santoro, President, Pacific Forum, USA; Rory Medcalf, Head of National Security College, Australian National University, Australia; Darshana Baruah, Fellow, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, India; Roukaya Kasenally, Associate Professor, Media and Political Systems, University of Mauritius, Mauritius and Prasad Kariyawasam, Former Foreign Secretary, Sri Lanka. The panel discussed the role of the countries in the Indian Ocean region to collaborate for the region’s sustainable development and a resilient future for all.

Inaugural Session

The Inaugural Session of the 7th Indian Ocean Conference commenced with the Curtain Raiser Address by Dr Ram Madhav, President, India Foundation. In his address, Dr Madhav spoke about the Indian Ocean not being “an artificial geo-political construct” but a natural region and home to around 40 nations and more of a “civilisation than a mere maritime geography”. He focused on the “non-traditional” challenges the countries of the Indian Ocean region face like climate change, natural disasters, ocean levels and supply chains over the traditional security issues that sustain all over the world and thus, the Indian Ocean Conference providing the platform to create a forum for deliberation on these challenges and to work out the measures to tackle them.

Dr Madhav expressed his gratitude to Senator Penny Wong, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Australia, for taking the initiative to host the 7th Indian Ocean Conference in Perth, Australia and for joining hands with the Indian Ocean region countries and outgrowing its “Pacific Ocean centric identity”. He also thanked H.E. Ranil Wickremesinghe, President, Sri Lanka; Dr S Jaishankar, External Affairs Minister, India; Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Singapore and Sayyid Badr Al-Busaidi, Foreign Minister, Oman for being associated with the series of Indian Ocean Conference since its inception.

Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Singapore, delivered his remarks on the strategic and historical significance of the Indian Ocean, being the “conduit of culture, language, religion and trade”. He spoke about the “choke points” in the Indian Ocean, first of which lies with Singapore and its connectivity with the rest of the world through the Strait of Malacca; secondly, the strategic and economic significance of the Indian Ocean for trade and maritime shipping. Dr Balakrishnan also spoke about the benefits of freedom of navigation and the importance maritime shipping holds for Singapore. Speaking about dangers of coral bleaching, he raised concerns for the sustainable use of marine biodiversity. He also spoke for seeking partnerships for collaborations on “green shipping corridors” to contribute to develop standards, best practices and the technology for decarbonisation, digitalisation, and sustainable growth of the maritime industry.

H.E Ranil Wickremesinghe, President, Sri Lanka, highlighted the importance and critical need of enhanced connectivity structure in the Indian Ocean region. He emphasised on the need for a collective geopolitical construct in the region to avoid “contested visions and multiple interpretations”. He also spoke about developments in the western Indian Ocean particularly due to geopolitical shifts and influence of major powers like Russia, China and Iran. The President also spoke of the present day challenges such as recent attacks on commercial vessels by Yemen-based Houthi rebels, and threats of piracy that tends to endanger the idea of freedom of navigation. He also emphasised on the issue of climate crisis, focusing on the Indian Ocean’s vulnerability due to Global Warming, and rising sea levels. He proposed for unity among Indian Ocean Rim countries to address shared challenges and look forward to collective actions and solutions for a more sustainable ocean environment.

Ms Penny Wong, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Australia, delivered the first keynote address at of the evening. She mentioned Perth as the Indian Ocean capital and the relevance Australia holds in engaging with diverse communities from South and East Asia. She acknowledged the unprecedented threats that have been affecting the prosperity, peace and resilience of the Indian Ocean region leading to depravity of food and energy resources along with rising levels of tensions, conflicts and transnational crime and terrorism. She also raised concern towards ocean warming, acidification, and coral bleaching and called for preservation of the oceanic ecosystem by working collectively towards slowing down the destruction caused by climate change. The Minister also announced the launch of Marine and Coastal Resilience Hub under India’s Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative. Ms Wong emphasised on building an Indian Ocean community and working towards collective cooperation and collaboration and embracing the regional diversity as strength in building partnerships among nations.

Dr S Jaishankar, External Affairs Minister, India, delivered the second keynote address of the 7th Indian Ocean Conference. He spoke about the issues of maritime traffic, piracy, terrorism and the challenges to international law along with concerns about freedom of navigation and safeguarding of sovereignty and independence of the countries in the Indian Ocean region. He raised concerns about the “grey areas” of various kinds that include climate change, natural disasters and the complexities of dual-purpose agendas that have created anxieties for the stakeholders. Dr Jaishankar emphasised upon the problems of the rise of inherent globalisation which has created supply-side risks and the possibilities of leveraging and thus the need to disperse production amongst more geographies and build “reliable and resilient supply-chains”. He spoke about the importance of the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and BIMSTEC in the region, the development and consolidation of the Quad grouping and emphasised the significance of India-Australia ties for the regional and global good.

Day 2 – February 10, 2024

Fireside Chat

The second day of the Conference started with a fireside chat between Ms Penny Wong, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Australia and Dr S Jaishankar, External Affairs Minister, India. They spoke about the significance of India-Australia bilateral relations and their development in present times which is reflected in the betterment of the region and the complementary relationship the two countries share thus bringing two different perspectives towards a common ground. The ministers spoke about the equation both the countries have with other Indian Ocean countries and how it elevates the regional engagements. They also spoke about the development of regional architecture in the Indian Ocean and the role of Quad in subsequent developments.

Plenary Session 1

The first Plenary Session of Day 2 of the Conference was hosted by Kate O’Shaughnessy, Research Director, Perth USAsia Centre, Australia. The speakers of the panel included Maneesh GOBIN, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Regional Integration and International Trade, Mauritius; Bendito dos Santos Freitas, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, Timor Leste; Muhammad Faruk Khan, Minister for Civil Aviation and Tourism, Bangladesh and Richard Verma, Deputy Secretary of State for Management & Resources, USA. The ministers spoke about the role of Indian Ocean countries to contribute and cooperate on their shared interests to secure a peaceful and prosperous region for the future generations.

Plenary Session 2

The second plenary session of the Conference was moderated by Md Shahriar Alam, Member of Parliament and Former Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Bangladesh. The speakers of the panel were Rafaravavitafika Rasata, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Madagascar; M.U.M. Ali Sabry PC, MP, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sri Lanka; Errol Fonseka, Minister of Internal Affairs, Seychelles; Sheryna Abdul Samad, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Maldives and Marc Abensour, Ambassador for the Indo-Pacific, France. The speakers of the session discussed various issues in the Indian Ocean region and the significance of the island states in the region to safeguard the well-being of the shared ocean resources.

Plenary Session 3

The third plenary session was chaired by Jennifer Parker, Expert Associate, National Security College, Australian National University. The speakers of the panel included Tim Watts, Assistant Foreign Minister, Australia; Jasem Mohamed AlBudaiwi, Secretary General, GCC; Narayan Prakash Saud, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Nepal; Dasho Chhewang Rinzin, Advisor, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and External Trade, Bhutan; Eileen Laubacher, Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for South Asia, National Security Council (NSC), USA and Yayan Ganda Hayat Mulyana, Head, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy Strategy Agency, Indonesia. The panellists deliberated on the role of new technologies and innovations which could benefit the Indian Ocean region.

Plenary Session 4

The fourth plenary session was moderated by Arun Sahni, Member, Governing Council, India Foundation and Former GOC-in-C, South Western Command, India. The panellists of the session were Anne-Marie Trevelyan MP, Minister of State (Indo-Pacific), UK; Nguyen Minh Vu, Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vietnam; Ahmed Ali Al Sayegh, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, UAE; Golam Sarwar, Secretary General, SAARC; Busadee Santipitaks, Deputy Permanent Secretary, Thailand; Shaikh Abdulaziz Al Hinai, Ambassador at Large, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Oman and Gabriele Visentin, Ambassador of EU to Australia, EU. The ministers and officials in the session discussed the collective prosperity, sustainability and connectivity in the Indian Ocean region and how the Indian Ocean countries can ensure a safe and secure future of the region.

Plenary Session 5

The fifth plenary session was chaired by Anil Wadhwa, Former Ambassador, India. The speakers of the session included Masahiro Komura, Parliamentary Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs, Japan; Velayoudom Marimoutou, Secretary General, Indian Ocean Commission; Salman Al Farisi, Secretary General, IORA; Indra Mani Pandey, Secretary General, BIMSTEC and Prak Nguon Hong, Secretary of State, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Cambodia. The speakers in the session spoke on facilitating collective action and cooperation, especially through regional architecture amongst the Indian Ocean countries.

The 2-day 7th Indian Ocean Conference concluded with the Vote of Thanks by Capt Alok Bansal, Director, India Foundation.

 

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Roundtable Discussion on ‘Bharatiya View of Conservatism’

Under the aegis of India Foundation, Conservatives’ Collective hosted a roundtable discussion on ‘Bharatiya View of Conservatism’ on February 04, 2024. The discussion witnessed significant contributions from senior scholars and academicians, along with important interventions from the participants, which included research scholars from various institutions and people from the academic communities in and around New Delhi.

At the outset of the discussion, Prof. Shri Prakash Singh, Director, South Campus, University of Delhi, and Convener, Conservatives’ Collective, introduced the initiative of the forum to the participants.


The initial remarks for the roundtable discussion were delivered by Dr. Ram Madhav, President, India Foundation, setting the tone and contours for the discussion. He shed light on the basic tenets of conservatism, as it emerged as a political philosophy in the West. As identified by him, some of the prominent tenets are individual freedom, limited government, rule of law, responsible fiscalism, commitment to human dignity, and acknowledging the centrality of family as a social institution. He further stated that while conservatism as a political idea may not be indigenous to the Indian context, the influence of international political discourses led to the categorization and tacit acceptance of such rubrics by Indian political thinkers and leaders as well. He also delved upon the need to engage with conservative thinkers of the Western world, and attempt to locate similar concerns and methods of addressal. The discussions were driven by the idea of articulation of Bharatiya political thought in a manner such that it is able to be in a constant dialogue with global conservative thought. He explained the objective of the discussion towards building a larger consensus on the meaning of conservatism, the Bharatiya view on it, and a strategic positioning of Bharatiya view of conservatism, in effective communication with the global stakeholders.

Dr. Madhav also chaired the first session of the roundtable discussion, which witnessed comprehensive deliberations on the subject by Prof. Chandrakala Padia, Former Vice Chancellor, Maharaja Ganga Singh University, and Prof. Rakesh Kumar Mishra, Former Head, Department of Political Science, University of Lucknow. Prof. Padia emphasized on the need to redefine ‘conservatism’ through an academic critique of the negative connotations associated with it, and by contextualizing it in the backdrop of Bharatiya worldview. She discussed the rich history of traditions, heritage, and culture that have anchored the Bharatiya civilization for several aeons, given a conservative disposition of our society towards such priced possessions. Prof. Mishra’s remarks were directed towards providing a conceptual clarity over the idea of conservatism and its Western origins. Tracing the idea back to thinkers such as Edmund Burke, he delved on the historical roots of conservatism, and its sharp differences from other ideologies such as socialism and liberalism. He also traced the presence of tropes of conservative disposition in Indian thinkers and political leaders such as Bal Gangadhara Tilak, C. Rajagopalachari, et. al.

The second session was chaired by Prof. Shri Prakash Singh, Director, South Campus, University of Delhi, and Convener, Conservatives’ Collective. Dr. K. Aravinda Rao, IPS (Retd.) and a Vedic scholar, Prof. Soumendra Mohan Patnaik, Head, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, and Mr. Come Carpentier, Distinguished Fellow, India Foundation, delivered their remarks. Dr. Rao’s address was centered on the Bharatiya view of conservatism from the perspective of Upanishads. He explained the dialogic model of Upanishadic texts, and how they’re based on introspection and contemplation. Prof. Patnaik provided his insights on the theme from an anthropological perspective. He discussed the need for developing an outward looking discourse on conservatism which sheds light on the “little traditions”, localized and rooted in the Bharatiya worldview. Mr. Come Carpentier elaborated upon the basic tenets of conservatism, and the current state of conservative values and politics in the West.

The third session was chaired by Dr. Swadesh Singh, Assistant Professor, Satyawati College, University of Delhi. The session was addressed by Dr. Ravi Kant Mishra, Joint Director, Prime Ministers Museum and Library, Dr. Saumya Dey, Professor, Rishihood University, and Dr. Guru Prakash Paswan, Assistant Professor (Law), Patna University. Dr. Mishra delivered his remarks on Gandhi and religion, and reflected on some of the Gandhian values which find parallels with the conservative tradition. Dr. Dey highlighted the distinctiveness of Bharatiya conservatism, which seeks a fine balance between the universal and the particular in its quest for human solidarity. Dr. Guru Prakash elaborated on the socially inclusive and integrative nature of Bharatiya conservatism, and described its praxis through various significant events such as the Ram Mandir inauguration. He also discussed the inclusive role of Dalits in practicing the conservation of Bharatiya traditions.

The special address was delivered by Dr. David Frawley, Founder and Director, American Institute of Vedic Studies. He delineated the unique aspects of Bharatiya conservatism, contrasting it with Western conservatism and shedding light on its potential impact globally. He highlighted that Bharatiya conservatism differs significantly from its Western counterpart. Rooted in the preservation and revival of a Dharmic civilization, it goes beyond religious, military, and political foundations. The Bharatiya tradition, encompassing a rich cultural, historical, and global heritage, is viewed as a progressive force that transcends traditional Western conservative values.

The concluding remarks were delivered by Prof. S. N. Balagangadhara, Professor Emeritus, University of Ghent. He distinguished Bharatiya view of conservatism from its Western counterpart, and explained how the Western conservative attitude made attempts to conserve abstract truth, while the Bharatiya traditions contemplated the conservation of knowledge. His insights into the distinctiveness of Bharatiya values and the potential for a dynamic conservatism that addresses contemporary challenges while preserving traditional principles contributed significantly to the roundtable discussion. The nuanced perspective enriched the dialogue and provided valuable insights for the future exploration of conservatism in the context of Bharat.

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India-Georgia Cultural Festival

An India-Georgia Cultural Festival was organised at Bharatiya Engineering, Science & Technology Innovation University from 25th- 28th January to celebrate cultural fusion between the two countries under which an extensive India-Georgia Cultural Dialogue took place on the very first day of the festival at Bangalore organised in collaboration by India Foundation and BESTIU. Speakers who graced this dialogue were Mr. David Janelidze, Professor, Shota Rustaveli, Theatre and Films State University, Mr. Giorgi Kekelidze, Poet, Essayist, General Director of National Parliamentary Library of Georgia, Dr. Suma Sudhindra, Veena Exponent, Ms. Tinatini Dugashvili, Producer/Journalist, Mr. Sudarshan Ramabadran, Visiting Fellow, India Foundation, Mr. Nikoloz Tsulukidze, Actor, Host and theatre critics, His Holiness Teimuraz Tsakashvili, Bishop, Georgia, Ms. Sophiko Khvibliani, Journalist, Ms. Tamar Gvinianidze, Georgian writer and Mr. Darpan Prasher, Founder, NGO Cultural Diversity for Peaceful Future. Post a beautiful rendition of Georgia’s National Anthem by New Bana’s Choir, Georgia; a welcome note was addressed by Dr. Biligi S.S., Vice Chancellor, BEST Innovation University, Andhra Pradesh. Keynote speech was delivered by Shri Ram Madhav, President, India Foundation.

Three sessions of Round Table Discussion were organised based on certain themes. 1st session chaired by Amb. Suresh Babu, Former Ambassador revolved around the theme of Cultural Exchange which witnessed Mr. David Janelidze, Mr. Giorgi Kekelidze, Dr. Suma Sudhindra and Ms. Tinatini Dugashvili threw spotlight on the symbiotic relationship between India and Georgia that evolved over centuries.

2nd Session explored the Historic Linkages between India-Georgia chaired by Ms. Marina Vasadze, Doctor of Art studies, Associate Professor, Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Films State University where we saw Mr. Sudarshan Ramabadran, Mr. Nikoloz Tsulukidze and His Holiness Teimuraz Tsakashvili delve into discussing shared historical narratives, trade routes and cultural exchanges emphasising ancient ties between the two nations.

3rd Session saw Ms. Sophiko Khvibliani, Ms. Tamar Gvinianidze and Mr. Darpan Prasher share their passionate thoughts on Preservation of Heritage. The session was chaired by Ms. Rami Niranjan Desai, Distinguished Fellow, India Foundation.

The day wrapped up with an enticing short performance presented by talented Georgian Artists.

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Centre for Eastern Studies (CES) Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich (OSW) – Interaction with India Foundation

A team from the Centre for Eastern Studies (CES) Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich (OSW), a Polish Think Tank led by Mr. Wojciech Kononczuk, Director General of CES visited India Foundation on 16 January 2024 at the India Foundation Office & held discussion with the India Foundation team on “Russia-China axis and its impact on Indo-Pacific and world order”. The discussion was chaired by Capt Alok Bansal, Director, India Foundation. The CES team comprised of Mr. Jakub Jakóbowski, Deputy Director General and Head of the China Department, Mr. Marek Menkiszak, Head of the Russia Department and Mr. Witold Rodkiewicz, Expert in Russia Department. They were accompanied by HE Dr. Sebastian Domżalski, Charge de Affair, Polish Embassy and Ms. Patrycja, Political Secretary. The participants discussed the current scenario of the Russia- Ukraine War and highlighted how Russia’s dependence on China is increasing with each passing day. India Foundation team said that India would want a quick resolution to the conflict, and would not want the arena of the conflict to expand. It was also brought out that historically, India has had good relations with Russia and although India is part of various groupings & alliances, it cherishes its strategic autonomy. India is also not a part of any military alliance with any country. CES team highlighted that in the past, Poland has had excellent relations with China, but the relations were under strain as Poland is moving closer to the Western world. The talk continued for an hour, and both institutions agreed on collaborating in future.

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Book Release: Australia’s Pivot to India by Andrew Charlton

India Foundation organised the India Release of the book, Australia’s Pivot to India by Andrew Charltion on January 10, 2024. The Chief Guest of the event was Shri Hardeep Singh Puri, Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas and Minister of Housing and Urban Affairs in the Government of India, who spoke about the developments in Australia-India Relations. As part of the release, Mr. Charlton engaged in a conversation with Mr. Ashok Malik, Partner and Chair, India Practice, The Asia Group where they discussed the relationship from each country’s point of view. Mr. Charlton spoke about what inspired him to write the book, various facets covered within it and the rationale behind it.

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India’s Space Programme: Developments And Strategic Concerns

The end of World War II did not usher in the desired peace; rather, it saw the beginning of geopolitical tensions between two blocs—the United States and its allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its allies on the other. As hostilities between the two blocs did not involve large scale fighting, this period came to be known as the Cold War, which continued for over four decades till the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Along with the Cold War began the race for space. This in part was inspired by the nuclear arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. The former began research on nuclear fission in January 1939, and by June 1940, scientists had a fair idea of the potential of atomic energy. Through the Manhattan project, huge investments were made to build a nuclear device, which finally fructified with the successful testing of a plutonium implosion device called “Gadget” on 16 July 1945. While Germany had surrendered earlier in May 1945, Japan was continuing with the war. To force an early Japanese surrender, an atomic bomb was dropped by the US on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, using a B 29 heavy bomber. Another atom bomb was detonated over Nagasaki three days later[1], which forced Japan to surrender, marking the end of World War II. The Soviets were now spurred to develop their own nuclear programme, both for national security as well as for ideological reasons. On 29 August 1949, the Soviets successfully conducted their first nuclear test in Kazakhstan.[2] The nuclear race had begun.

The next step was dominating space, which in military parlance is viewed as the ultimate high ground. The Soviets were first off the board, with the launch of Sputnik 1 in a low earth orbit on 4 October 1957. A month later, on 3 November 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, carrying a dog named Laila into space.[3] Shortly thereafter, the US launched their own satellite, Explorer 1 into space on 31 January 1958.[4] Thus began the race for domination of space flight technologies. This pursuit continues amongst various nation states of the world, encompassing the launch of earth satellites in various orbital configurations, establishing space stations and space probes of the Moon, Venus Mars and other celestial bodies.

The Beginning of India’s Space Programme

India began its space programme, a few years after the Americans and the Soviets had launched their first satellites. At that time, applications using satellites were still in an experimental stage, but with the live television coverage of the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japan, across the Pacific by the American Satellite ‘Syncom-3’—an experimental geosynchronous communications satellite[5]—the potential of satellites for communication and other purposes was dramatically demonstrated to the world.

A few years after gaining independence, India started research on nuclear energy. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established on 3 August 1954, under the direct charge of the Prime Minister and with Dr Homi Bhabha as its Director. The DAE was given the mandate to transact all businesses of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act, 1948. On 1 March 1958, the government set up the Atomic Energy Commission with full authority to plan and implement the various measures required for the expansion of the atomic energy programme. In 1961, space research was placed under the ambit of the DAE. A year later, in 1962, the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established under the DAE, with Dr Vikram Sarabhai as its chairman. Subsequently, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was established in August 1969, in place of INCOSPAR.[6] In June 1972, the Government of India constituted the Space Commission and established Department of Space (DOS). Thereafter, in September 1972, ISRO was brought under the DOS.

Dr.Vikram Sarabhai, the founding father of India’s space programme, appreciated the benefits of space technologies and their potential to address the myriad problems of a geographically large developing country like India. He founded the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in 1947 and became its first founder director. Dr Sarabhai founded the PRL initially at his residence, to carry out research on cosmic rays and the upper atmosphere. On 11 November 1947, it was formally established in the M. G. Science College, Ahmedabad, with support from the Karmkshetra Educational Foundation and the Ahmedabad Education Society. Research in Theoretical Physics and Radio Physics were added later with grants from the Atomic Energy Commission.[7] As Director, PRL, Dr. Sarabhai got together a number of brilliant scientists from multiple disciplines to spearhead the space programme. These included scientists, anthropologists, communicators, social scientists and others from all over the country.[8] In 1962, he took over the responsibility of organising Space Research in India as Chairman of INCOSPAR and thereafter as Chairman of ISRO. Since then, India’s space programme has made tremendous strides, especially in the last decade, placing India as one of the leading nations in space technology.

India’s Space Programme

Over the last six decades, the Department of Space has evolved various programmes to promote and develop application of space science and space technology. These include:[9]

  • Developing indigenous capability for launching satellites.
  • Developing satellites for the purpose of communication, remote sensing, navigation, meteorology, etc.
  • Research and Development in Space Sciences and Technology.

Launch Vehicles: SLV and ASLV

In the early 70s, ISRO started to develop the technology to launch satellites. The Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) project aimed to carry a payload of 40 kg, up to a height of 400 km. The first launch mission carried out by India was the SLV 3E1 on 10 August 1979.  The mission was unsuccessful, but the very next year, on 18 July 1980, Rohini Satellite RS-1 was successfully launched using the SLV 3E2. This was an experimental project, but the next two projects were designated as developmental, with the fourth and final launch of the SLV taking place on 17 April 1983. The SLV project was followed by the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) programme, aimed to deliver a 150 kg payload to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Four development flights of the ASLV took place, the first on 24 March 1987 and the fourth on 4 May 1994.[10]

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

The ASLV project was followed by the third generation Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) programme. Called the workhorse of ISRO, it has been used to launch all the three types of payloads, viz. Earth Observation, Geo-stationary and Navigation. Both Indian and foreign satellites have been successfully launched using the PSLV. Amongst others, the PSLV was used to launch “Chandrayaan-1 and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2018 and 2013 respectively, the former for India’s Moon mission and the latter for India’s mission to Mars.[11] Its reliability, versatility and affordability has made it a sought after launch vehicle for the launch of foreign satellite also.

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) with indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage has enabled the launching of up to 2.25  tonne class of communication satellites. A fourth generation launch vehicle, GSLV’s primary payloads are INSAT class of communication satellites for placing them in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits. It can also place a payload of up to six tonnes in LEO.[12] With these launchers, India is totally self sufficient for launching its satellites.

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is capable of launching a 500 kg satellite in a 500 km planar orbit. The second developmental flight of the SSLV was successfully launched on 10 February 2023. SSLVs require minimal launch infrastructure and can be launched on demand. They are cost effective, have low turn-around time, and can accommodate multiple Nano, Micro and Mini satellites. SSLV-D2 is intended to inject EOS-07, Janus-1 and Azaadi SAT-2 satellites into 450 km circular orbit, in its 15 minutes flight.[13]

Launchers in use and under Development

A total of 94 launches have taken place till date, the most recent being on 02 September 2023 where the PSLV-XL Launcher placed the Aditya L1 satellite into orbit. Of the 94 launches made so far, 85 were successful, giving the Indian space programme a success rate of 90 percent successful launches. In the last nine years, 54 launch missions have taken place of which 52 were successful, giving a success rate of over 96 percent. In the last two years, all the 12 missions launched were successful, giving a 100 percent success rate.[14] This is indeed an enviable achievement, comparing favourably with other major space-faring nations.

Launchers in use are the PSLV, GSLV, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3) and Sounding Rockets. Both the SLV and the ASLV have been retired. The LVM3 was used for launching Chandrayaan 3 to the Moon on 18 July 2023. Launchers under development are the Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV), Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) and Scramjet Engine – TD.[15]

Major Satellite Launches

From the launch of the Aryabhata and Bhaskara 1 satellites on 19 April 1975 and 7 June 1979 respectively, both of which were experimental satellites, India has come a long way. Over a hundred Indian satellites have been launched till date, using for the most part, Indian launchers. Satellites have been launched for earth observation, planetary observation, communication, navigation, disaster management, climate environment and for experimental purposes.

Aditya L1. This is India’s first space based mission to study the sun. Launched on 02 September 2023, the satellite is set to reach its cosmic destination, Lagrange Point 1 (L1) on 6 January 2024. Aditya-L1 is carrying instruments to observe the solar atmosphere, mainly the chromosphere and corona. In-situ instruments will observe the local environment at L1. There are seven payloads on-board of which four are for carrying out remote sensing of the Sun and three for carrying out in-situ observation.[16]

Chandrayaan 3. India’s lunar exploration program has been a source of national pride and a testament to the country’s scientific prowess. Chandrayaan 3 was a follow on mission of Chandrayaan 2, designed to demonstrate end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the moon. Consisting of a lander and a rover, the former was equipped with Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to measure thermal conductivity and temperature. Other equipment in the lander was to measure seismicity around the landing site and to estimate plasma density and its variations. The Lander also carried a passive Laser Retroreflector Array from NASA for lunar laser ranging studies. The Rover’s payload was for deriving the elemental composition in the vicinity of landing site. Launched on 14 July 2023, the Lander made a successful touch down near the lunar south pole on 23 August 2023, placing India among a select group of countries—the US, Russia and China—to achieve this feat and the only country to have successfully landed on the moon’s south pole. It positions India as a global hub in the new space economy.

Mangalyaan

India’s first inter-planetary mission was the launch of Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), called Mangalyaan, on 05 November 2013. Mangalyaan orbited Mars  from 2014-2022, making ISRO only the fourth space agency after NASA, Roscosmos, and the European Space Agency to achieve this feat. Mangalyaan had a stated life span of six months, but it continued to send data well beyond that prior, for a period of seven and half years, after which the mission was declared closed. It represented a great step forward in developing technologies to explore the inner solar system. The scientific equipment carried on board  was Mars Colour Camera, Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer, Methane Sensor for Mars, Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyser and Lyman Alpha Photometer.[17]

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)

India’s ambitious IRNSS programme is a constellation of seven satellites in space, the first of which, IRNSS-1A was launched on 01 July 2013 and the seventh, IRNSS-1G, on 28 April 2016. IRNSS is now called NavIC, an acronym for Navigation by Indian Constellation. NavIC is designed to provide geospatial positioning information within the Indian sub-continent. It functions akin to the US Global Positioning System (GPS), but unlike the US GPS, which provides global coverage, NavIC provides coverage to the Indian land mass and to areas 1500 km beyond it. NavIC is used for ground, aerial and marine navigation, disaster management, mobile phone integration, mapping and visual & voice navigation for drivers, among others. When fully functional, India’s dependency on foreign navigation satellite systems will reduce considerably.[18]

The NavIC space segment consists of 3 Geostationary orbits (GEO) and 4 Geosynchronous orbits (GSO) satellites. The ground segment is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the IRNSS constellation.  It consists of the spacecraft control facility, navigation centre, Range and Integrity monitoring stations, Network Timing Centre, CDMA, Laser Ranging stations and a Data Communication Network. The User segment aims to provide Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian research & commercial use, and Restricted Service (RS) for authorised users such as in the defence sector.[19] As per Rajeev Chandrasekhar, Union Minister of State for Electronics and Information technology, all smartphones will have to support NavIC by the end of 2025.[20]

GAGAN is the acronym for GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. Jointly developed by ISRO and the Airports Authority of India (AAI), it uses a system of ground stations to provide necessary augmentations to the GPS standard positioning service (SPS) navigation signal. It was first used by a commercial aircraft on 22 April 2022, when an Indigo flight landed in Kishangarh Airport in Rajasthan using the indigenously developed Satellite based augmentation system (SBAS), making India the first country in the Asia Pacific to successfully develop such a system for aviation use.[21] With this, India’s GAGAN becomes the fourth space-based augmentation systems available in the world after US (WAAS,) Europe (EGNOS) and Japan (MSAS).[22]

Strategic Concerns

When India began its space program, it remained focussed on the peaceful uses of space such as for weather forecasting, disaster management, communications, education, remote sensing etc.. India had tremendous development challenges, so to make a case for additional allocation of funds for the space sector which did not have a direct bearing on India’s development effort, was  a difficult proposition. That India has still made gigantic progress in the space sector reflects credibly on the aptitude and dedication of its scientists, but that has not lessened the need for allocation of higher budgetary allocations. Today, considering the geo-strategic environment in which we are living, much greater thrust has to be given to this sector, both as an economic necessity as well as on security considerations. India’s share in the global space economy is just about 2-3%, which needs to be considerably enhanced to at least 10% by 2030 and to 25-30 % by 2050, commensurate with India’s standing in the world. Funding for space-based activities will hence require a quantum increase, year on year, henceforth.

The security challenges which India faces on its land and maritime borders are indeed immense. While success in sending a satellite into orbit around Mars, the demonstration of end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the moon, and its success in sending a space-based mission to study the sun is laudable, concerns remain about the vulnerabilities that India’s reliance on satellites has created. Doing away with space based assets for communication, earth observation etc.. is really not an option. Increasing focus is hence required on the need to protect space and ground based assets from hostile forces.

In addition, China’s controversial testing of an anti-satellite missile in 2007, was a wake up call for India. It took 12 years for India to develop its own ASAT capability, with India successfully carrying out an ASAT test on 27 march 2019.

This was announced to the nation by Prime Minister Modi on the same day. Mission ‘Shakti’ as the test was called, struck an Indian satellite in LEO, which had been recently launched for the purpose, destroying it. With weaponisation of space becoming a possibility in future, India’s ASAT test, besides showing India’s deterrence capability, was also required from India’s point of view as future arms control agreements will place India on the have category and make it a party to framing that agreement.

Conflicts over the past three decades have shown the power of technology in the battlefield, wherein a missile can be sent to destroy a target with precision, many thousands of kilometres away. This has been made possible by space based capabilities, which play a key role in the military’s C4I2SR (command, control, communications, computers, information, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance) systems. ISRO presently has 54 satellites in orbit – both LEO and GEO combined. Some of these are dual use, but only two are dedicated for military use. The dedicated military satellites are the GSAT-7 (Rukmini) and GSAT-7A (Angry Bird),  used by the Indian Navy and Air Force, respectively.[23] India has been relying on foreign partners for some of its satellite-based communications and data services. While cooperation in space with friendly countries will continue, India needs to ramp up its space capabilities and dedicate a much larger number of satellites for that purpose. Speaking on this issue, ISRO Chairman S Somanath said that ISRO will launch 50 satellites in the next five years that are based on AI technology and that can interact with each other in space to gather geo-intelligence.[24] This indeed is a welcome step that will bolster Indian space capability and assuage to some extent, India’s security concerns.

Since 2014, we have seen the political leadership taking ownership of the space domain. This too, is a welcome and most desirable development, as it will lead to much greater focus on this segment. But the political leadership has to be consistent in its support for the space programme, especially in terms of setting goals, requirements, and milestones outlining where India wants to be in 2030 and 2050 and thereafter ensure that the stated goals are achieved.

As in the US, there is a need for much greater involvement of the private sector in India’s space programme. The Indian space program is entirely state-driven, though ISRO is around 70%–80% reliant on private sector contractors for components and services. The DOS is now proposing reforms to open up the space sector to private industries. NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), which was incorporated in 2019 under the DOS, to commercially exploit the goods and products emanating from the Indian space programme will act as the aggregator of user requirements and obtain commitments. Accordingly, Non Government Private Enterprises (NGPE) could be allowed to take part in space activities through an Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Center (IN-SPACe).[25] How this pans out remains to be seen, but it is a welcome step that has the potential to boost the entry of private players in the space segment manifold. We could well see an Indian Elon Musk emerging in the next decade or two, if the private sector picks up pace. In any case, if the private sector can manage some of the tried and tested programmes, ISRO would be able to focus on purely research driven programmes and on interplanetary missions.

Conclusion

Despite limited resources, India’s space programme has achieved a great deal and covered many milestones over the last six decades. Space however is the final frontier and a great deal more has to be done for India to come at par with the space programmes of the US, Russia, the EU and China. This would require a very active involvement of the political leadership to fulfil India’s space ambitions as also the involvement of the private sector in a big way. Cooperation with other space agencies would also be required, and India joining the Artemis Accord is a step in that direction. The future is exciting. The next decade will determine how India’s plans to be a leading space-faring nation plays out. This is one race in which we cannot be found wanting.

Author Brief Bio: Maj. Gen. Dhruv C. Katoch is Editor, India Foundation Journal and Director, India Foundation

References:

[1] https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/75-years-ago-flight-enola-gay

[2] https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/soviets-explode-atomic-bomb

[3] https://www.britannica.com/technology/Sputnik

[4] https://www.nasa.gov/history/explorer-1-overview/

[5] https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1964-047A

[6] https://www.isro.gov.in/genesis.html#:~:text=To spearhead the space research,1969, in place of INCOSPAR.

[7] https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/history

[8] Ibid.

[9] https://www.isro.gov.in/Mission.html

[10] https://www.isro.gov.in/ASLV.html

[11] https://www.isro.gov.in/PSLV_CON.html

[12] https://www.isro.gov.in/GSLV_CON.html

[13] https://www.isro.gov.in/mission_SSLV_D2.html#:~:text=The second developmental flight of,pad at SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota.

[14] https://www.isro.gov.in/LaunchMissions.html#

[15] https://www.isro.gov.in/Launchers.html

[16] https://www.isro.gov.in/Aditya_L1.html

[17] https://www.isro.gov.in/MarsOrbiterMissionSpacecraft.html

[18] https://www.isro.gov.in/SatelliteNavigationServices.html

[19] https://www.ursc.gov.in/navigation/irnss.jsp

[20] https://www.livemint.com/news/india/all-smartphones-to-have-navic-by-december-2025-11694712552783.html

[21] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/explained-why-isros-gagan-satellite-navigation-programme-is-a-landmark-in-indian-aviation/articleshow/91186634.cms?from=mdr

[22] https://vajiramias.com/current-affairs/gagan-satellite-technology/647aff28c302e77fcbf89d07/

[23] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/after-navy-iaf-army-to-get-dedicated-satellite-gsat-7b-as-mod-inks-rs-3k-cr-deal-with-nsil/articleshow/99129740.cms?from=mdr#

[24] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/india-plans-to-launch-50-satellites-for-intelligence-gathering-in-five-years/articleshow/106392402.cms#

[25] https://www.isro.gov.in/Reforms.html

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Technological Developments in the Space Domain: The Challenges for India

The evolving space domain is marked by advanced technologies which pose both opportunities and risks for India’s global economic and national security. Propulsion, satellite, energy, cyberspace, robotics, and surveillance advancements create prospects and challenges. Developments like the Western space startup surge could deepen global economic disparities or offer India substantial gains. Growing space capabilities from influential nations like the U.S., Russia, and China raise concerns for India’s space assets. UAPs (Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena), studied by NASA and the Pentagon, add a cosmic dimension. India’s response to these developments warrants examination, urging proactive engagement to avoid geopolitical regression and loss of autonomy.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS

In the pursuit of evolving into a space-faring civilisation, sustained economic activities within the space domain are imperative. The pioneers in this arena are predominantly from North Atlantic countries, with a notable focus on space factories and the recognition of property rights over space resources.

Space Factories

Over the years, the share of global space research and development (R&D) funding from the US government has declined from approximately 70 percent to around 50 percent. Simultaneously, the annual funding of space-related startups has more than doubled from 2010 to 2018. There is a growing trend where commercial funding may surpass government funding within the next two decades. The government is actively embracing this shift and fostering the potential for mutually beneficial public-private partnerships.[1]

Numerous sectors stand to benefit, including semiconductors, health, wellness products, and many more. The unique microgravity and near-vacuum environment in space unlocks novel manufacturing methodologies unfeasible on Earth. Experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS) have showcased successful ventures in producing human tissues, semiconductors, and new drugs. Recent initiatives by the Biden administration allocated $5 million toward cancer drug research on the ISS.[2] Notably, patents referencing microgravity have shown a tenfold annual increase since 2010.[3] However, the ISS faces a considerable backlog of entities seeking to utilise its facilities, compounded by its impending phase-out. This has prompted countries like China to establish their own space stations.[4]

To reduce dependence on the ISS, startups like Varda Space Industries in the U.S. are pioneering space-based manufacturing. Varda focuses on pharmaceutical development in microgravity. Operating an autonomous space module, the company manipulates materials, improving protein crystallisation processes, potentially enhancing existing drugs and fostering new pharmaceutical innovations.[5] They also earn through a $60 million defence contract that uses their space capsule as a hypersonic testbed.[6]

Space Forge is a British company spearheading semiconductor manufacturing in space, with the European Space Agency as its principal customer.[7] Their vision entails manufacturing semiconductors with challenging materials like Gallium Nitrate and Silicon Carbide in space. This proposition suggests enhanced chip efficiency, potentially increasing from 10x to 100x. Space conditions facilitate optimal large single crystal structure production which improves heat dissipation and electron flow. Currently, they produce 500 chips per flight, with plans to scale to a million.[8]

Space Mining

The initial excitement surrounding space mining has waned recently, marked by the acquisition of ambitious companies like Planetary Resources and Deep Space Industries by entities showing minimal interest in space resource extraction. Despite this, interest in space mining persists, albeit accompanied by significant hurdles. Lack of technical advancements in mining tools, exploration modules, logistical concerns, and lingering financial viability questions pose substantial challenges. For instance, missions like NASA’s Osiris-Rex, requiring seven years and $1 billion to retrieve under 1 kg of asteroid sample, highlight the cost-prohibitive nature of asteroid mining.[9] Despite these obstacles, startups like Astro-Forge remain hopeful, drawing inspiration from past achievements, and insisting that the true value in space mining lay with extracting metals, and not water[10] [11]. Initiatives like NASA’s Psyche mission conducting asteroid sciences for resource mapping offer promising insights for prospective space mining endeavours[12]. Asteroid Psyche 16 is believed to have enough raw materials to make every person on earth a multi-billionaire.[13] Yet, NASA is emphasising the moon as a more viable site for mining.[14] This stems from confirmed water presence at the lunar south pole which is essential for energy, hydration, and oxygen. The moon’s proximity, stability and mass make it a more feasible landing site compared to asteroids. This prompts many to view a moon base as an essential logistical hub for an effective asteroid mining value chain.[15]

The US has been advancing private ownership over space resources, evident in the US Commercial Space Launch and Competitiveness Act of 2015. This legislation allows commercial companies operating within its regulatory framework to legally appropriate resources acquired from celestial bodies known as Near Earth Objects. Luxembourg has also followed suit with its Law on Use of Resources in Space Act and the establishment of the Luxembourg Space Agency, aiming to offer a clear legislative framework for space mining activities, thereby reducing uncertainties to attract investment. Furthermore, the UAE’s Federal Law No. 12 on the Regulation of the Space Sector in 2019 covers various space activities, including space mining. Japan’s 2021 Act on Promotion of Business Activities Related to the Exploration and Development of Space Resources also focuses on space mining. However, despite these legal strides, there are notable differences among these domestic laws. Divergences exist in their acknowledgment of the Outer Space Treaty’s appropriation principle, issues of international cooperation, their definition of terms like “space resources”, issuance of property rights, licensing norms, etc. But it is undeniable that despite the legal uncertainties, these countries are clearly trying to lay claim to their stake in the gold rush in space.[16]

Space Logistics

Space logistics stands as a pivotal cornerstone in the burgeoning space sector. Whether facilitating space mining, establishing space factories, or venturing into innovative concepts like space hotels, robust space-based logistics remains vital. DARPA’s Orbital Express, initiated in 2007, marked a foundational attempt in this domain. The program aimed to validate the feasibility of autonomous satellite refuelling and reconfiguration to bolster national security and commercial space endeavours. Refuelling satellites promised improved manoeuvrability, coverage, survivability, and extended operational lifespan, while on-orbit electronics upgrades offered performance enhancements and rapid technology deployment.[17]

Currently, private entities are taking strides in this realm. Atomos Space plans to launch the Quark and Gluon, designed for rendezvous, docking, refuelling, and orbital transfer.[18] Blue Origin is developing the Blue Ring, a versatile spacecraft catering to in-space services, from hosting to transportation, refuelling, and data relay.[19] With a cohort of companies like Impulse Space, D-Orbit, and Momentus in this sector, these innovations mark a shift toward in-space mobility vehicles catering to diverse missions and orbits.

MILITARY DEVELOPMENTS

In an era where space capabilities define global power, military operations in orbit have become pivotal. Espionage via advanced satellites and the unsettling rise of anti-satellite missiles underscore a new frontier of strategic competition. These developments, accompanied by cybersecurity threats, shape a landscape demanding critical analysis and proactive defence strategies.

Cyber Warfare

The year 2022 witnessed a significant stride in space-based espionage as SpaceX propelled the classified US government satellite, NROL87, into orbit. This satellite boasted cutting-edge spying capabilities for overhead reconnaissance missions. However, Russia swiftly launched its own spy satellite, Kosmos 2558, and manoeuvred it in close proximity to the American satellite within the same orbit.[20] The global implications of these manoeuvres became apparent, particularly in the context of the United States’ use of spy satellites to monitor missile and rocket launches across the globe.

This heightened the awareness of vulnerabilities inherent in many space assets. The inadequacy of these assets in considering the nuances of hacking and employment blasts became glaringly evident. Alarmingly, the simplicity with which satellites could be hacked has been demonstrated in YouTube several times.[21] Most satellite vulnerabilities come from the fact that they were not designed with cyber threats in mind. This vulnerability escalated into a global phenomenon, with major powers—China, Russia, and the United States—engaging in frequent hacking attempts aimed at the “deny, exploit, or hijack” objective regarding enemy satellites. In response, countries are pooling expertise to counter these threats. The US military, for instance, initiated hackathons where ethical hackers were incentivised to identify vulnerabilities within American satellite systems, subsequently enabling the rectification of these flaws.[22] Notably, these cyber attacks aren’t confined to space; the 2019 cyber attacks conducted by North Korea on ISRO ground stations serve as a poignant reminder of the broader scope of such threats.[23]

Anti-Satellite (A-Sat) Missiles

A disquieting evolution in space capabilities has emerged with the demonstration of anti-satellite capabilities by major powers including Russia, China, India, and the United States. These advancements allow the targeted destruction of adversary space assets, posing greater risks than mere espionage due to the potential repercussions of the Kessler Syndrome triggered by space debris.[24]

The inherent danger was starkly highlighted by incidents such as the need for the International Space Station (ISS) to execute evasive manoeuvres to evade debris resulting from the destruction of a satellite.[25] Furthermore, missions like the DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test) mission elevate concerns as they demonstrate American capabilities to target and potentially attack assets situated far away, accurately using space based platforms.[26] Notably, the limitations imposed by technology prevent the use of anti-ballistic missiles to protect space based assets. This leaves numerous satellites vulnerable to kinetic attacks, thus amplifying the stakes and complexities of space security. Meanwhile, some other nations have joined to pledge to not conduct A-SAT tests in space in an effort to preserve orbital safety.[27]

Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP)

UAPs, a modern reinterpretation of UFOs, denote flying objects linked to non-human (alien) intelligences. Initially met with skepticism, the discourse has evolved in the last five years. It is progressing from acknowledgement of UFOs to the claims of reverse engineering UFOs and encounters with non-human intelligences. This shift was driven by courageous testimonies from military personnel and government insiders.

After the bombshell 2017 New York Times Article, the U.S. Government had reluctantly admitted to the existence of a UFO/UAP issue and began briefing members of Congress on it.[28] Prominent figures in the political sphere, including Barack Obama, the Clintons, John Podesta, John Ratcliffe, John Brennan, James Comey, and others, have confirmed the reality of UFOs. Obama even stated, “when it comes to aliens, there are just some things I can’t tell you on air”, before going on to confirm the UFO reality.[29] John Ratcliffe, the former Director of National Intelligence, publicly stated that the U.S. lacks the capability to defend against these objects.[30] Marco Rubio even felt that it was better for UAPs to be aliens because if they belong to an adversary, Pax-Americana had already ended. The UAPs exhibit abilities that defy our current understanding of physics, including the capability to achieve relativistic speeds, operate in diverse mediums, break the sound barrier without producing a sonic boom, accelerate instantaneously, and execute high-speed manoeuvres without regard to inertia or G-forces. The UAPs also come in various shapes and sizes.[31]

The growing pressure from Congress led to the establishment of the UAP Task Force (now AARO) in 2020, tasked with collecting and analysing UFO reports. They have so far collected over 800 reports to date. While government statements refrain from attributing these phenomena to foreign adversaries, they stress the national security and aviation safety threats posed by UAPs.[32] Bill Nelson, NASA’s Director, initiated a UAP study panel that recently published its inaugural report, followed by the establishment of a permanent UFO office within NASA.[33] This is late compared to France’s CNES which has long maintained GEIPAN for investigating civilian and military UFO reports.[34]

A pivotal moment occurred when David Grusch, an intelligence official with the NGA and the NRO, emerged as a whistleblower. During his congressional testimony, Grusch revealed the government’s involvement in capturing and reverse engineering UAPs. His position within the UAP Task Force and his role in authoring whistleblower protections in the NDAA lent credibility to assertions of UAP possession, reverse engineering, disinformation campaigns, budget misallocation, private contractor involvement, recovery of bodies, and security breaches.[35] Notably, dozens of whistleblowers have now approached Congress and the Inspector General to make protected disclosures.[36] Grusch’s claims aren’t new though. Similar claims have been made historically by figures such as Canadian Defense Minister Paul Hellyer[37] and Apollo Astronaut Edgar Mitchell.[38] Furthermore, the U.S. Navy’s patent filings since 2016, detailing advanced UFO-like technologies were granted following naval intelligence’s citation of Chinese advancements in similar fields.[39] The extent of reverse engineering by Russia and China remains uncertain, with some believing that they might be ahead of the US.[40] It has been confirmed that China has established a UFO task force and employs artificial intelligence for UAP study.[41] Meanwhile, some Canadian parliamentarians have concerns about Canada’s declining role in UFO retrieval programs within the Five Eyes alliance.[42]

A schism exists between the legislative and executive branches in the United States. John Kirby has affirmed the White House and Pentagon’s seriousness of the subject, citing that many of these reports come from restricted areas such as training zones, test sites, and missile bases.[43] Meanwhile Congress, displaying remarkable bipartisan unity, relentlessly seeks answers from the executive. In July 2023, Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer introduced the UAP Disclosure Act, an amendment to the 2024 NDAA. This legislation aims to bring transparency to UAP matters, acknowledging undisclosed UAP documents, addressing the misuse of national security provisions, establishing an Expert Review Board for declassifying UAP records, and enhancing witness accessibility. Importantly, it lays claim to “eminent domain” over recovered UAP technology and biological materials, setting specific deadlines for disclosure.[44]

However, in early December, some Congressmen managed to severely dilute the UAP Disclosure Act to the point where its title may no longer be accurate. Notably, the amendment of the lower house takes away the Eminent Domain and Records Review Board clauses, which many considered central to UAP disclosure. The military industrial complex may have won the battle by killing the amendment. However, they may have also just lost the war by making obvious moves through political agents they publicly donate to.[45] The UAP caucus continues to fight by demanding answers from officials in secure facilities, but so far have been told they do not have clearance to know the information.[46] Congressman Andy Ogles had even threatened to invoke the Holman rule to cut finances to the executive if they continue stone-walling Congress[47] But such drastic measures are yet to be seen.

OPPORTUNITIES & THREATS FOR INDIA

Economic Developments

India has chosen a more slow and pragmatic approach to their space programs that focuses on learning from others to improve its own efficiency, while adding value to space research. This was demonstrated with the Chandrayaan, Aditya L1 and Mangalyaan missions. ISRO has plans to put independent astronauts on the moon by 2040. ISRO has underscored the technological gaps hindering the feasibility of asteroid mining, thus diverting its focus toward lunar endeavours after joining the Artemis Accords.[48] [49] While the moon offers opportunities, asteroids remain rich in precious resources crucial for burgeoning industries. To avert potential economic vulnerability, ISRO must vigilantly monitor developments and strategise for future mining operations.

Space mining will be driven by demand for critical metals essential in electronics, solar panels, wind power, and electric car components. While some companies consider extracting metals from the seafloor, asteroids offer an alternative with abundant reserves, avoiding environmental concerns tied to wildlife harm during extraction. Asteroid mining emerges as a pragmatic avenue for future resource exploration.[50] Pioneering nations stand to reshape geopolitics by monopolising extraterrestrial resources, potentially leaving India economically disadvantaged if we remain tardy in entry.

Simultaneously, India’s support for space startups signals progress in nurturing the space value chain. With India’s space economy projected to reach ₹35,200 crore ($44 billion) by 2033, IN-SPACe’s vision prioritises ‘Made in India’ space products, emphasising co-development and co-production for private sector growth.[51] India must strategically incentivise startups for innovative space logistics solutions, aligning with the success of its satellite launch program. By offering cost-effective services, India enhances competitiveness, enabling broader utilisation in diverse space ventures, solidifying its pivotal role in the global space community. It is crucial that India bring in its own domestic space law that reduces uncertainties for investors. Like the US and Luxembourg, an easy regulatory and tax regime will greatly incentivise the growth of the space industry.

Military Developments

India’s military advancements include the successful 2019 anti-satellite weapon test and its first table-top space warfare exercise – IndSpaceX, demonstrating integrated satellite communications and reconnaissance for enhanced intelligence and firepower.[52] In 2019, India established the Defense Space Agency (DSA) and the Defense Space Research Organisation (DSRO). The DSRO, resembling a U.S. fighter command, coordinates space assets across military branches. The DSA, a research organisation, integrates civilian space technology for military applications. Some suggest India create a Space Force, mirroring the U.S., to strengthen satellite network defence and take  assertive actions against adversary networks in the evolving space security landscape.[53] There seem to be some indications of such a move being underway. Meanwhile China, since privatising its space industry in 2015, autonomously developed space warfare capabilities thanks to billions worth of investments in recent decades by the CCP.

To catch up, experts have proposed advancing dual-use technologies and expanding the Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) satellite system. The Space Policy 2023, though discreet about the military aspect, prioritises enhancing space capabilities for socioeconomic development and security. It strategically aims to bolster India’s intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities, with implications for both civilian and military applications due to the dual-use nature of these technologies.[54]

India must advance its space capabilities by developing sophisticated space-based weaponry including hard kill guided missile systems, jamming devices, directed energy weapons, and electromagnetic pulse systems for space-to-space operations. Both soft and hard kill systems, such as jammers and directed energy weapons, are crucial components for Outer Space Warfare. This emphasises the need for India to invest in cutting-edge technologies to bolster its defence capabilities in the vast expanse of outer space.[55]

To achieve a comprehensive security framework for space, India needs integrated Space Forces but the idea faces a significant challenge in the form of budgetary constraints. The current commitments of the three services are already strained by existing allocations, and the outlook for a substantial increase in funds is bleak, given the current trend of defence budget relative to GDP. This financial limitation raises concerns about India’s ability to effectively respond to potential overt offensive actions by China.[56]

The Government of India has made substantial strides in cybersecurity, earning the 10th global rank in the 2020 UN International Telecommunication Union Global Cybersecurity Index. The National Security Council Secretariat, led by the National Cyber Security Coordinator, aims to integrate cybersecurity policies and architecture. However, the draft National Cyber Security Strategy lacks a focus on space security, despite concerns raised by the Data Security Council of India about potential attacks on critical infrastructure, including space agencies. Integrating space into the strategy is crucial, given its role in security, military functions, and communications. It has been noted that ISRO defends against more than 100 cyberattacks each day.[57]

Thus, India needs to emulate the US and prepare satellite hacking sandboxes that can be experimented with to find system vulnerabilities. There is a need to integrate critical cybersecurity safeguards into India’s national space policy, aligning it with the National Cyber Security Strategy and National Security Strategy. Also, India needs to implement a Purple Revolution, incorporating cybersecurity red and blue teaming exercises under the Ministry of Defence and Home Affairs to enhance offensive and defensive capabilities. India must encourage a whole-of-nation approach, where Chief Information Security Officers allocate two percent of their productivity to National Critical Infrastructure and space cybersecurity. We must urgently increase the space budget allocation from 0.04 percent to at least 0.5 percent of GDP to boost research centres and space standards. Finally, India must enhance space supply-chain resilience and security within QUAD’s space cooperation, establishing a central Indian space resilience agency for joint monitoring and incident response exercises.[58]

UAP Issue

India’s response to UAPs remains inadequate, evident in the silence from both the executive and Parliament despite regular ITBP encounters[59] and a notable incident above the Prime Minister’s residence in 2018.[60] RTI requests yield limited information, with ISRO and the Embassies claiming ignorance, while the ITBP and Airforce have claimed national security exemptions from answering queries. The UAP report by NASA suggests the ISRO collaborated NISAR platform as valuable in studying UAP events. This shows the paradoxical approach by ISRO on the subject. Given the potential decades-long UAP reverse engineering efforts by countries like the US, Russia and China, India’s lag could jeopardise its strategic autonomy and pose threats from traditional adversaries, necessitating immediate action. Notably, these issues exist even if we ignore the elephant in the room – alleged contact with non-human intelligences.

Despite the current disadvantage, India can swiftly become a leader in the UAP domain. Leveraging its ancient history, India may discover crashed UAPs, expediting reverse engineering. Like Japan[61], France, and the US, India must introduce protocols for military and civilian aviators’ reporting of UAPs while synchronising her land, sea and space surveillance capabilities to give her eyes across domains. Establishing a dedicated public-facing UFO office, akin to the French GEIPAN, helps collect and analyse reports from civilians and the military which improves flight safety and domain awareness. Covert and overt data collection from international partners can offer valuable insights into adversary programs. Participation in global UAP conventions, along with support for San Marino’s Project Titan – aiming to establish a permanent UAP office under the UN[62], can position India as a leader in UAP research and benefit sharing, ensuring our strategic advancements in this field. India must also leverage the expertise from universities and create UAP research programs akin to the Galileo Project at Harvard[63]. Interestingly, many UAP researchers consider India to hold a treasure trove of information regarding the historical and ‘supernatural’ aspects of the phenomena which are often clubbed under the heading of ‘high strangeness’. Thus, India may actually hold crucial pieces of the puzzle that will eventually help the human species unlock the secrets of this enigma. The nullification of the UAP Disclosure Act must be seen as a major opportunity to catch up to other nations before “catastrophic disclosure” pushes us into a paradigm where our autonomy isn’t secured.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, India stands at the crossroads of both threats and opportunities presented by cutting-edge technologies. Joining the Artemis Accords and gearing up for increased lunar activity by the decade’s end places India at the forefront of outer-space advancements and provides the nation with expertise and adaptability for swift program implementation. The introduction of the Indian Space Policy and the establishment of the Defense Space Agency (DSA) and Defense Space Research Organisation (DSRO) signal commendable strides toward enhancing space asset security.

However, there are areas demanding improvement. Notably, fostering growth in space manufacturing through incubating start-ups is crucial. Space-based manufacturing of pharmaceutical ingredients and semiconductors could substantially reduce India’s import reliance. Allocating funds to space logistics, monitoring space mining developments, and leveraging public intellect to identify and address cyber vulnerabilities in space assets are imperative. The realm of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP) demands immediate attention, as a delay in proactive measures may risk compromising India’s strategic autonomy. India needs to greatly expand on its all domain awareness to prevent airspace incursions. A transparent and public-facing approach on the issue which actively involves data from diverse sources, is essential to reversing this trajectory and ensuring a secure and thriving space future for India.

Author Brief Bio: Amog Nair is a researcher with an MA in Space and Telecom Law from Nalsar University. Concerned with Indian backlogs in the field of UFOs, he founded uapforindia.online, a UFO reporting center and blog that offers an Indian perspective on UFO-related matters.

References:

[1] McKinsey & Company. (2022, November 28). How will the space economy change the world? McKinsey & Company. Retrieved November 20, 2023, from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/how-will-the-space-economy-change-the-world

[2] ISS National Laboratory. (2023, August 9). Science in Space to Cure Disease on Earth—the International Space Station National Lab and NASA Announce New Funding Opportunity. ISS National Laboratory. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.issnationallab.org/science-in-space-to-cure-disease/

[3] McKinsey & Company. (2022, June 13). Microgravity manufacturing and R&D in space. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/the-potential-of-microgravity-how-companies-across-sectors-can-venture-into-space

[4] Jones, A. (2023, August 15). China’s space station, Tiangong: A complete guide. Space.com. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.space.com/tiangong-space-station

[5] Varda Space Industries. (n.d.). Life Sciences. Varda Space Industries. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.varda.com/life-sciences

[6] Erwin, S. (2023, March 21). U.S. Air Force to test hardware at hypersonic speeds on Varda’s space capsules. SpaceNews. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://spacenews.com/u-s-air-force-to-test-hardware-at-hypersonic-speeds-on-vardas-space-capsules/

[7] Space Forge. (n.d.). In-Space Manufacturing. Space Forge. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.spaceforge.co.uk/in-space-manufacturing#semi-conductors

[8] CNBC. (2023, August 20). How Space Factories Are Becoming A Reality. YouTube. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZJv_YGpjeI

[9] Yarlagadda, S. (2022, April 8). Economics of the Stars: The Future of Asteroid Mining and the Global Economy. Harvard International Review. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://hir.harvard.edu/economics-of-the-stars/

[10] P Wall, M. (2022, May 26). Asteroid-mining startup AstroForge raises $13 million, books launch for test mission. Space.com. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.space.com/asteroid-mining-startup-astroforge-2023-launch

[11] Petrova, M. (2022, October 9). Space mining business still highly speculative. CNBC. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://www.cnbc.com/2022/10/09/space-mining-business-still-highly-speculative.html

[12] NASA. (2023, October 13). Psyche. NASA Science. Retrieved November 14, 2023, from https://science.nasa.gov/mission/psyche/

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