From the very beginning, BRICS was one of the top priorities for the Russian foreign policy. The Association embodies the vision Russia believes in – BRICS promotes just and equal relationship and multifaceted mutually beneficial cooperation based on legitimate national interests, international law and the UN Charter. In BRICS, there is no place for a dictate, domination, unilateral and confrontational approaches, sanctions, weaponization of economy and currencies,
as well as interference in domestic affairs.

Even in the current geopolitical turbulence, BRICS is not aimed against anyone. It even does not confront the current international economic and financial institutions, rather it is designed to supplement them. In fact, it offers alternative instruments, which are supposed to be safe from politicized Western architecture,
including in the context of the de-dollarization trend.

In this sense, one of the most important achievements of BRICS is the New Development Bank as well as Contingent Currency Arrangement, which were launched in 2014. To date, the NDB’s loan portfolio includes 90 projects amounting to more than USD 30 bn. In order to diversify and expand its potential for the benefit of member-economies, it is going to increase the share of non-sovereign projects and to promote cooperation network with other multilateral and national development and commercial banks. We also welcome the NBD’s new shareholders Bangladesh, UAE, Egypt and Uruguay and expect more countries to come in.

The BRICS members have been taking consistent steps to switch
to settlements in national currencies for quite some time now and working out new payment mechanisms. Against this backdrop, the proposal of the Brazilian President Lula de Silva to think about the creation of a single BRICS currency sounded relevant. At the last year’s summit, the President of Russia Vladimir Putin spoke
about an international reserve currency based on the currency basket of the BRICS countries. These ideas demonstrate new tendencies, however it’s clear that a lot
of aspects around that require in-depth study. For instance, the creation of a single currency suggests the establishment of a single emission center and regulator as well as the synchronization of macroeconomic and monetary policy. On the other hand, a BRICS payment instrument based on the currency basket would help to carry out mutual settlements without any reliance on the US dollar. In any case, the issues
of building an effective independent settlement and payment infrastructure
are among the priorities of BRICS in the financial track. Consultations on that
are going on.

Traditionally, the BRICS agenda closely corresponds to the G20 priorities, including the need to consolidate the efforts and interests of emerging economies and empower the countries of the Global South. Hence, BRICS is a natural source of support of the current Indian Presidency in the G20. The growing potential
of BRICS combined with our likeminded vision for sustainable and predictable multipolarity is by itself a solid reason for us to move ahead towards real democratization of the global governance. That is why it has always been important
to maintain relevant coordination. Russia would favour to resume the pre-pandemic practice of regular meetings of BRICS leaders on the sidelines of the G20 Summits.

BRICS exemplifies a new formation, which can be called a flexible integration based on consensus and being truly comprehensive. More than
70 formats of practical cooperation are structured in the three pillars – policy and security, economy and finance as well as humanitarian ties. All that makes this Association even stronger than any agreement-based supranational Alliance or
a bloc. That means that we eagerly cooperate on those issues, which we have voluntarily agreed upon.

The Big Five partnership includes such critically important areas like counterterrorism, anti-corruption, healthcare, digitalization, science and technology, innovations, energy efficiency, food security, supply chains, customs, e-commerce and even space with the Remote Satellite Constellation Agreement is being implemented since 2022.

BRICS is capable to timely respond to the needs of member-states. During
the COVID-19 pandemic, the NDB launched the USD 10 bn support programme
to help the nations to overcome relevant social and economic consequences.

All the above aspects make BRICS very attractive for other countries, which do share the same values and principles and want to be part of equal and mutually beneficial cooperation. And it’s a high time to respond to such desire of at least more than 20 aspirants. The South African presidency’s endeavors in this regard deserve high appreciation. With over one third of the world’s GDP, a total population
of around 3 billion people and a strong desire of other states to join its activities,
it is safe to say that BRICS becomes an integral element of an evolving multipolar paradigm, and it is our collective responsibility to effectively address its potential. There is a big hope and expectations from the coming Summit in Johannesburg, which will bring together more than 60 countries with a view to consolidate
the global majority in solving common development issues, overcoming acute trade and economic imbalances and multiplying the areas of cooperation.

Russia as the next BRICS chair wholeheartedly supports the priorities set up by the South African presidency focusing on the extension of engagements with Africa, and wishes the Summit to be a historic success reflecting the traditional spirit of mutual respect, equality, solidarity, pragmatism and friendship.

Author Brief Bio: Mr. Roman Babushkin is the Minister-Counsellor, DCM, Embassy of the Russian Federation in India.

Note: This is the transcript of the Speech delivered by Mr. Roman Babushkin, Minister-Counsellor, DCM, Embassy of the Russian Federation in India, at the Roundtable discussion on “BRICS Expansion and Currencies” organised by India Foundation on 11 August 2023.

Shristi Pukhrem: It is indeed a very interesting time for India and as India is about to host the G-20 Summit but India also recently participated in the BRICS summit. So, what are the main takeaway for the Brazilian government from the recently concluded BRICS Summit 2023 in Johannesburg?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: The main takeaway is undoubtedly the expansion of the group. We are quite satisfied with the inclusion of important partners of Brazil in the group, and the mere fact that approximately 30 countries are interested in joining the group speaks in and of itself, and perhaps it sends some messages to the world at large. First, I think an urge to concretise inclusiveness and multipolarity in the world. I think also an interest for new spaces of discussion and new spaces for consensus building and so on. And of course, it also signals those multilateral institutions of governance are not delivering, perhaps what they should deliver peace and security, inclusiveness, concrete actions in facing the global challenges of the majority of humanity, meaning food security, access to energy, fighting poverty and also fighting climate change in the sense of not only mitigation of climate change, but also adaptation to climate change. So, I think this very solid interest in becoming a member of BRICS conveys a very strong message to the world.

Shristi Pukhrem: How does Brazil see and analyse the official declaration and the concrete decisions that has been made at the BRICS 2023 Summit?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: We are quite satisfied. When the debate was going on in Brazil regarding the siding with the countries within BRICS who wanted to push for an expansion, other countries were not so convinced, President Lula was one of the first to say that the expansion is a good thing and BRICS does not exist to compete. BRICS is there for inclusion not competition.

Shristi Pukhrem: Brazil takes over as the G-20 chairmanship next year. Brazil wishes to increase the Latin Americas role in BRICS, and with the recent expansion of membership, we saw that Argentina’s inclusion is the first step in that direction. So how does Brazil see the inclusion of new members in BRICS, and what effects could this expansion according to you have on the global economic order overtime?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: There was a previous discussion among members of BRICS regarding the criteria for meeting new partners and for Brazil geographical diversity was one of the main criteria that should be taken into account. So, for us it’s more than natural that Argentina becomes a member of BRICS. It’s one of our main partners, is a South American country, is a member of G-20, but also when we speak of geographical diversity, we also favoured including countries from the Middle East, from Africa, from Asia. So, we are quite satisfied with the results and of course an expanded BRICS is a group with more economic clout. It represents a large part of the world and of humanity, and it has spread geographically. So, all these factors sum up to having a more influential group.

Shristi Pukhrem: So, does Brazil see the MERCOSUR bloc getting institutionally connected with BRICS. Will it be a natural process that MERCOSUR and BRICS will be naturally connected now that its two largest members, Brazil and Argentina, both are in the BRICS?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: Well, MERCOSUR is a formal international organization. BRICS, is a well-established coordination group of countries which are like minded in more than one aspect. So, I do not see how these countries could establish formal relations, institutional relations, but we cannot discard in the future. For example, the establishment of a permanent dialogue mechanism between MERCOSUR and BRICS, not a formal one because these are two different groupings with different agenda.

Shristi Pukhrem: What do you think are the main factors driving interest in BRICS, especially across the Global South?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: The factors that are widely spoken and which has attracted so many countries are inclusiveness and multipolarity. The Global South is conveying a message that it needs to be included more in the big clubs with the big countries. So, in BRICS, you will find, and I can say that because I was a former sous-sherpa of BRICS, you find an atmosphere, a dynamism where you can really interact and put forward your priorities and then there is a very solid and consolidated spirit of trying to build consensus. Sometimes the consensus is very complex to build, but the spirit of wanting to reach consensus is an important political dimension of the inside dynamics of BRICS.

Shristi Pukhrem: So, when we are talking about Global South, do you see a contestation occurring in the near future between Global South and Global North?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: From the Brazilian point of view, President Lula has made that very crystal clear is that BRICS is there for inclusion, not for competing with G-7 for example. BRICS for us it’s not anti-West. We don’t think that G-7 is anti-South. It’s not in the spirit of our diplomacy, never has been.

Shristi Pukhrem: How will the BRICS financial institutions help further in mobilizing resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects, mainly in emerging markets and in developing countries?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: The new BRICS bank or the New Development Bank (NDB), is part of the family of multilateral banks or multilateral institutions. So, it aims at joining forces with other multilateral institutions in order to provide more financing, more financial products, diversified financial products for the developing countries, and we know that this is complex because after the pandemic, after quite an uneven recovery, unbalanced recovery of economies throughout the world after the pandemic. To develop financial products which can preserve the financial solidity of the multilateral banks and at the same time take into account the needs of countries who need financing but have some challenges regarding balancing budget, regarding implementing social policies against hunger, against poverty. So, what I can say about it is, first NDB wants to join forces with other multilateral banks. Second, it wants to really listen to the Global South. BRICS is a locus where you can mainstream this discussion and on the basis of this discussion, we can develop good financial products as per the needs of the developing world. And also, financing is a very important pillar of promoting development. Another important pillar is trade and in the declaration on the occasion of the Johannesburg summit, BRICS has shown concerns with neo-protectionism, which has been introduced on the basis of environmental concerns. Of course, we are not saying that the environmental concerns are not legitimate concerns. The point is how this is going to be implemented, because I would doubt whether when you introduce new barriers and regulations to trade on the basis of environmental concerns, when you do that you have to bring into the discussions also the pillars of climate change law, meaning common and differentiated, the principle of common and differentiated responsibilities, because if you put a barrier against an export of a small country who has historically contributed zero to climate change, but has an industry which has kind of heavier carbon footprint. This country will not be able to export to important markets in the world. So, trade as a channel to induce growth and produce development which is so important for developing countries can be blocked by this kind of neo-protectionism. So, I am not saying that environmental concerns are not important. But let’s do this really with care and understanding that what you are causing or what are the consequences to the Global South when you introduce this kind of barrier.

Shristi Pukhrem: How would Brazil define the role, scope, and potential of the new 11 member BRICS? And we see that there are more than 20 more candidates who are interested to join this grouping.

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: Diversity is part of the Brazilian DNA, and we favour diversity. The idea that the BRICS is becoming more diverse means that more ideas, more concerns are becoming part of our internal discussion. And also, we can claim more legitimacy in terms of the consensus we will build within this enlarged group. We are not saying that BRICS will be an alternative to the reform of the multilateral international government institutions. We are not saying that it’s an alternative. I think it’s a group which can contribute in the spirit of building blocks.

Shristi Pukhrem: With the new 11-member grouping, do you see BRICS as a non-aligned movement or a block capable for providing a better balance in the G-20 and the UN Security Council, and maybe pushing for the reform of the UNSC?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: I am a bit cautious when it comes to establishing these historical analogies. We should try to understand facts and situations which happened in different period of times. Submitting these facts to a same paradigm of thought, can limit our capacity of analysis in the sense of seeing unprecedented things happening. I would say that of course the non-aligned movement was created in a moment of big global challenges and BRICS was created as a response to the need of making more countries heard, having their concerns heard in the multilateral fora and as a groups which tried to chart new courses, offering different alternative solutions to global challenges. So, we could perhaps envisage some points of contact between the two initiatives. But I would be cautious in drawing conclusions based on an analogy.

Shristi Pukhrem: How do you see India and Brazil bilateral relations in the global multilateral order?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: Our bilateral relations are 76 years old, started in 1947. Throughout these 7 decades we coordinated consistently, in a very consistent and continuous way in all multilateral forum. I think that all Brazilian diplomats who have been active in the last 40 years in multilateral fora, having engaged in coordination with their Indian colleagues which has built trust and confidence between Brazilian and Indian diplomacy. Both countries are of sheer size together –GDP, population, biodiversity, importance in the climate change debates on negotiations throughout the world. We are the two largest democracies in the Global South. With all these assets we can be mainstays in debating multilateral fora and in many groups in the G-20, within BRICS, within IBSA and G-4 and so on, we can really make a contribution and claim that we are legitimate players because we represent a sizeable part of humanity, and also because India has been traditionally very vocal in multilateral fora in defending and presenting the claims and the plight of the developing world. So, I think that we can make a difference together.

Shristi Pukhrem: India is hosting G-20 in next few days and the next chairmanship of G-20 is with Brazil. So, what are the key expectations or what will be the key takeaways from this summit as we pass on the chairmanship to Brazil next year?

Amb. Kenneth H. da Nobrega: One important takeaway is continuity and I think we will see continuity in the way we see inclusiveness, multipolarity and also mainstreaming the concerns and the challenges faced by the Global South, because, after all, it’s the majority of humanity that lives in the Global South.

 

Brief Bios:

His Excellency Mr. Kenneth H. da Nobrega is Ambassador of Brazil to India.

Dr. Shristi Pukhrem is Senior Research Fellow, India Foundation.

Introduction

Philosophy, of which ethics is a significant ingredient, is a systematic reflection upon lived experiences, both present and past, in order to be benefited by the same for realization of quality of worldly life and ultimately the summum bonum of life. So, philosophy begins with philosophy of life, lived and to be lived in this cosmos. It is a quest for the ideals of life along with an endeavor to realize the same. It has an essential practical orientation. But this activity is to be undertaken keeping in view the entire wide and variegated Reality. By its very nature it cannot be a piecemeal and compartmentalized thinking even though there can be selective focus on some aspects with some specific objective. The complex Reality can only be understood by integrating multiple, even seemingly contradictory experiences.  It has to be a holistic reflection from varied perspectives and multiple approaches. It has to be done with the objective of being benefited by it in shaping the cosmic and human existence for universal well-being. Naturally therefore the individual human existence, human society, natural environment, scientific and technological enterprises, and social, economic and political organizations become crucial points in a purposeful deliberation. Consideration of deeper issues. concerning these areas provides it practical orientation in the context of human life planning, social engineering, science policy and environmental stewardship.

The present paper is an exercise in a very problematic but highly significant enigma of human life concerning freedom and responsibility and concerning the environmental disruption and pollution and consequent ill effects experienced in our concrete day to day living all over the globe due to misuse of freedom and lack of responsibility. It is enigma in the sense that we are aware of the prevailing disastrous situation and its destructive consequences and yet we do not make serious and sincere efforts to get rid of it. We do raise environmental concerns at different forums but we do not cultivate environmental consciousness which was inculcated in us by our ancient seers. If we are sincere in this endeavour we may derive helpful guidance and redemption from the deep insights and enlightening visions of Indian seers and sages.

Human being as highest emergent

Human being in the worldly existence is the highest emergent in the cosmic process so far. Shaped by genetic endowment, ecological interaction and cultural transformation human existence is multi relational, multi-dimensional and multi-layered. It has individual, social and cosmic aspects in a holistic and organic framework. It is intimately related with Nature, with other human beings and non-human species. Human identity, therefore, cannot be determined by any one of these facets alone in isolation with others; it is constituted by the totality and intricate unity of all of them.

Human being as rational, free and responsible agent

Human being, ideally speaking, is ratiocinative, goal-oriented, free and responsible agent. He/She is a knower, responsible agent and enjoyer through innate competence and overt performance. As a self-conscious and reflective person, he/She has the capacity to understand one’s own self as also others. The term used in Indian culture for such a human being is puruṣa. And his/her planned, purposive and methodical action is termed as puruṣārtha. As ratiocinative knower human being is endowed with the capacity to know, to discriminate and to form judgment. He/She has freedom of will and can make a choice. He/She is also a responsible agent and has to be accountable for his/her actions.  The free will is regulated will. All his/her willful actions should therefore be in the form of puruṣartha. He/She has to perform actions with full knowledge, freedom and responsibility. They should be in the form of “artha” (conducive and leading to well-being) and not “anartha” (detrimental and harmful). Activity is the law of life and every human being must act as puruṣa for survival, sustenance and for enhancement of quality of life. So, there is inclusive alternation between freedom and determinism, free choice and circumstantial limitations. Rationality as discriminative ability implies freedom to choose but being guided by certain norms. It also implies responsibility for the consequences so generated by one’s actions.

Human being responsible for environmental pollution

Unfortunately, under the influence of ignorance human mind is prone to perversion and susceptible to wrong-doing and evil. The perversity-prone human mind more often than not indulges in law-violation rather than law-abidance in this lawful cosmos.  This leads to ecological and environmental disruption and pollutions at the physical, mental and intellectual levels. The pollution is not just physical in earth, water, air, fire and space. It is all-round at the individual level, at the family level, at the community level, at the social organizational level and at the cosmic level. Sometimes this is caused out of ignorance, sometimes by selfishness, sometimes by force of circumstances but more often by weakness of will or perverse habit of mind. It is not unnatural as its seeds are potentially present in human mind because of the past karmas start fructification before one becomes aware of it or makes an attempt to get rid of it. This is one of the facets of the operation of the law of karma. This law has attributive, retributive and distributive facets which need to be understood properly. But it is very difficult to understand this operation and go beyond its labyrinth.

Significance of health and hygiene

Environmental disruption and pollution, imbalance and degradation, are anti-thesis of health and hygiene. Recognition of value of internal and external health and hygiene, both individual and social, is a hall mark of civilized society. Health and hygiene are essential for socio-economic as also for total development. It is a truism to say that only in a healthy body healthy mind resides and when there is psycho-physical health there is spiritual solace. For this apart from cleanliness of body and external surroundings, purity of eatables and drinkables leading to purity of mind is also necessary along with considerations of quality, quantity and modality of their intake. Health is primarily an individual value (though figuratively we do call health of the society or nation) whereas hygiene is both individual and social. Maintenance of both is human responsibility for which purity of thought and conduct are essential prerequisites.

Genesis of the problem

The genesis of all worldly problems is anthropocentric individualistic attitude of humans. He/She thinks that the cosmos is for his/her purpose and he/she is the master of all and everything exists for his/ her sake. He/She is the measure of all and center of the cosmos. This ignorance breeds greed and selfishness. It is this aberration in thought and practice which is responsible for absence of symbiotic life style in a holistic globe. It is this which generates all conflicts, tensions and disorder. As stated earlier, the problem pervades all levels of existence, individual, social and global. It has become deep rooted. We may wish to overcome it yet we do not have the required will and the concerted efforts at all levels. We may only hope that saner sense will prevail upon humanity.

Need for ethics and morality

Since all pollution and perversion is human making there is need to regulate human conduct. There is moral degeneration everywhere. The discipline of ethics is primarily concerned with postulation of norms for good human life and regulation of human conduct in accordance with these norms. On the presumption that human being is a puruṣa ethical considerations, ethical theorizing and ethical judgments are undertaken. As stated earlier, rationality as discriminative ability implies freedom to choose but being guided by certain norms. The determination and choice of alternatives requires norm-prescription but human freedom also implies a scope for both norm-adherence and norm-violation. Values to be pursued and disvalues to be shunned are both equally central to moral considerations. Body, senses, breath and mind are governed by the subtle vibrations. The mind, in turn, leads and shapes the entire cosmic process. If we have kuśala citta (righteous mind shaped by right knowledge) we perform good deeds and virtues spread. But if we have akuśala citta (vicious mind) we indulge in bad deeds and vices spread.  Delusion produces infatuation and dereliction which in turn give rise to passions like greed, hatred and all other vices. Moral degeneration results in pollution within and without. The point to be noted is that no event and no phenomenon, good or bad, is self-existent or eternal.  The implication to be derived is that all ecological pollutions have a causal origin and all these are caused by human mind and resulting harmful actions. Their annihilation also is to be caused by human mind only. As a most evolved species in the cosmic evolution human has acquired the capacity to preserve Nature or harm Nature. Since we have caused the evils and consequent undesirable suffering, it is our responsibility to eliminate them. This is what can be termed as ‘Universal Responsibility’.  We carry a universal responsibility not to create ecological imbalance and to rectify whatever imbalance we have caused because of our folly. As stated earlier our entire actions stem from our consciousness. If we have pure consciousness (kuśala citta) our actions will be good and conducive to well-being. If we have impure consciousness our actions will certainly be bad and they will lead to all miseries and sufferings. Through our actions we help or harm others and ourselves.  All our thoughts, words and deeds are results of our past actions and shape our experiences of the present and the future. What we shall be depends on what we are at present and how we behave in the present. We have therefore to cultivate right attitude towards life and Reality.  We have only to cater to our needs and not to feed our greed.  We have become too much selfish, consumerists and exploitative. We have ceased to respect our authentic existence and also the authentic existence of others. Indian culture advocates a balanced view of life. Mere material prosperity with the development of science and technology or mere moral and spiritual preaching cannot mitigate worldly sufferings. For a meaningful solution a symbiosis of the two is needed. Eradication of egocentricity and cultivation of existential openness and universal sameness based on the principles of interdependent existence and interconnectedness of all phenomena enunciated in the Indian tradition are remarkable and the most distinguishing features of Indian ethics that have great relevance and significance in contemporary times and in the new millennium to bring about universal peace, harmony, prosperity and well -being.

Cosmo-centric Global Eco-ethics

From the doctrine of interdependent existence of all phenomena it follows that Indian approach to Reality and hence to ecology is holistic and integral. It does not entertain at the empirical level dichotomy of human-Nature or Nature-culture or body-mind or heredity-environment or theory-praxis or thought–action.  A holistic approach accommodates differences which may appear to be opposites.  Here there is no exclusive ‘either-or’ but inclusive ‘either-or’. There are no rigid structures, no globalized one-size-fits all approach.

Leading an ecologically responsible life is possible by synchronizing five environments surrounding an individual-family, community, society, nation and cosmos. The guiding principles for this are rightness and mutual support.  It is an ethical path of enlightened knowledge and conduct. The entire cosmos is a network of mutuality of events characterized by universal interdependence, interpenetration, interconnectedness and interrelationships. In this undivided world everything miraculously supports everything else. It exhibits ‘mutual interpenetration and interfusion of all phenomena’.

The point is that there is wholeness of life, self –sameness of all existences and therefore we must cultivate universal love, universal compassion, universal kindness and respect for all lives and all existences.

Further, this approach being spiritualistic and teleological from this we get a vision and an approach to cosmo-centric eco-ethics, a widening of moral sensitivity as it views human actions in a cosmic context. In modern times we need such eco-conduct to solve eco-crises.

All natural objects have a spirit residing in them. They are our co-inhabitants. As we have a right to live, they also have a right to live. It is therefore a sin to harm or pollute or destroy them. This sort of panpsychism is an outcome of spiritual approach to Reality and life. It also reveals the interconnectedness and interpenetration of all phenomena.

Further, in loving all beings and Nature there has to be a life of collectivity, a samgha jīvana. The real meaning of life is to be found in the midst of this network of collectivity, a network of interrelationship we call ‘life’. Life is to be lived meaningfully in the spirit of cooperation, of mutual give and take, with love, compassion and respect for all. Indian ecology is based on conservation ethics of mutual care and share and therefore Love, compassion and concern for others should be as natural and instinctive as it is for our own selves.  It is living with others and living for others and not living on others.   The cardinal principle of Indian eco-ethics is, “In joy and safety let every creature’s heart rejoice”. There are two very catching and apt words for this idea i.e., feeling of sameness with others (parātma samatā) and identification of oneself with other selves (parātma parivartana)^2. This feeling of oneness is not physical or geographical but mental and psychological. The root cause of suffering is delusion (avidyā) and mental afflictions (rāga-dveṣa). The consequence of it is feeling of separateness, fragmentation, a sense of separate and independent existence, separated from each other, separated from the environment that sustains us and separate from the things we are inextricably related with. The ecological crises we witness today are the result of this delusion which gives rise to greed, hatred and stupidity.

From Indian teachings we learn another lesson that ecology is not a mere matter of theorizing or sermonizing but something to be practiced. So, all of us have to be ‘engaged persons’ irrespective of our religious affiliation. Instead of crying hoarse over environmental pollutions it is time to act and not to be occupied in discussions and debates or throwing the ball in one another’s court. This is important and relevant for us to save this planet from disaster. In this sense message of Indian culture is perennial and eternal. This is enlightenment.

Indian view of surface and deep ecology

The western ecology is utilitarian, materialistic and mechanical but Indian ecology is spiritual and teleological. In Indian teachings we have both surface and deep ecological thinking but their meanings are different than the ones understood by the western thinkers. By deep ecology the Indian mind would mean that we have to attend to the functioning of our mind.  All good and evil proceed from the mind. Mind occasions our conduct and makes it good or bad. So, we should educate our mind first. This is the foundation of all ecology. This is the real deep ecology that pertains to inner environment. The surface ecology pertains to our actions that constitute outer environment. We feel affected by our actions. They alone are visible and tangible.  But they are not basic. They only result from our thinking. Their roots are in our thinking. Knowledge and conduct are two sides of the same coin, but knowledge is more basic. The point is that ecological consciousness is fundamental to ecological conduct. Consciousness operates at the deeper level and actions are its outward expression at the surface level. Although internal and external aspects can be distinguished, they cannot be separated. They are mutually interdependent. There is another dimension of deep ecology. Because of its spiritual orientation it talks of essential unity of all existences. All entities exist in the same form. All existences have mutuality and participatory being. Actually, there is no ‘other’ in ecological considerations. This interconnectedness may not be experienced by deluded empirical mind and this requires spiritual vision for true understanding of Reality.

Remedial measures

Having viewed the Indian approach to ecology we may now discuss the remedial measures. It is to be noted that the problem of environmental pollution is not individual but collective and cosmic and therefore the remedial measures also have to be collective and global.

Respect for Nature ingrained in Indian mind

It is to be highlighted that Nature has its intrinsic value as well as instrumental worth. We have forgotten the intrinsic value of Nature and have taken it as merely instrumental. We forget that we are products of Nature since we are embodied self and we are sustained by Nature. Instead, we try to conquer Nature and have mastery over it. This is our ignorance, our mithyā dṛṣṭi (wrong view). Indian sages and seers always respected and loved Nature and wanted to be in the lap of Nature. If we care for Nature, Nature will care for us. If we destroy Nature, Nature will destroy us. This is the simple principle of interdependence. So, it is saner to preserve and protect Nature, rather worship Nature as a spiritual entity. Nature is beautiful and bountiful. It is full of joy and it gives joy to us. It is joyful and joy-yielding. Let us appreciate and preserve this quality of Nature. Nature is to be approached with respect and gratitude. A life in the lap of Nature is a mark of spiritual freedom. It is freedom from all restraints, physical and mental. It is widening, deepening and heightening of spirit. It is a life of purity, internal and external. Life in Nature is natural life. We should ideally lead a life of a ‘green monk or nun’ caring for Nature and sharing the bounties of Nature. To repeat, if we care for Nature, Nature will care for us. If we pollute Nature, it adversely affects our existence. Nature is an ‘Embodied Love’ and ‘Embodied Benevolence’. For example, trees do not exist for themselves, they stand in the sun and provide shadow not to themselves, and they yield fruits and other benefits not for themselves. They do so for the sake of others. The same is the case with rivers, mountains and other objects of Nature. In this respect Nature is a great master and a teacher practicing and teaching maitrī (loving kindness), karuṇā (compassion), muditā (sympathetic joy) and upekṣa (equanimity), kṣamā (forgiveness), sahiṣnutā (tolerance) and samatva (selfsameness).

Doctrine of Ahimsā as a guide to ecology

As stated earlier, the physical and external pollution is due to mental and internal pollution. it is due to akuśala citta. This moral degradation affects the individual as well as his or her surroundings. The remedy lies in recovering the lost vision of wholeness and practicing Ahimsā . The need is to establish a vratisamāja (Value-based society).

The doctrine of Ahimsā provides a foundation to an environmental perspective to be offered to humanity to meet the present-day crises that are endangering and threatening all existences human as well as non-human. It also deals with the cardinal Indian teachings that can help in bringing about an ecological lifestyle. Ecological thinking and ecological living go hand in hand and a symbiosis of the two has been the keynote of the Indian view and way of life. Concern for the well-being of the living beings and the physical world has been an important element throughout the history of India. Human existence and destiny are inextricably linked with environments. Recognition that human beings are essentially dependent upon and interconnected with their environments has given rise to instinctive respect and care for all living beings and Nature. Every existence from elementary particles to plants, animals, birds and human are participatory members of the planetary community having personal dignity, inherent worth and inviolable rights to exist and grow.

Ahimsā is not just non-killing but a positive action in the form of unselfish friendliness and compassion for all existences based on the spirit that all existence is as sacred as our own existence. It therefore preserves life and ensures durable peace. Ahimsā further implies giving due opportunities to all existences for self-preservation and self-development. There should be no deprivation or exploitation. Ahimsā also means removal of suffering of others, offering joy to them, service to all needy and active involvement for good of all. Apart from loving Nature the Indian culture has always advocated love and respect for all beings. All living beings are creatures of Nature. Nature provides them physical form and sustains them. Nature environs them and provides them nourishment. So, the principle of Ahimsā tells us that one which you want to kill is your own self as your existence depends on that thing. So, earth, water, air, fire and space all have life to be respected and preserved.  and insistence in the lap of Nature is highlighted.

There is another reason for respecting the life of all living beings. Indian culture has advocated the doctrine of cycle of birth and rebirth. This implies kinship with all creatures. We may take rebirth as any of such creatures depending upon our karmas. These creatures could have been our parents or sons or daughters in their previous births. So, to kill some being is to kill one’s own relative. Therefore, vegetarianism is the safest practice to escape from this eventuality. Vegetarianism is good for healthy living also.

Doctrines of Aparigraha and Samyam as guiding principles of eco-ethics

Indian tradition emphasise the doctrine of  śama. It means samyam which means limitations of wants, desires and possessions (parigrahaparimāṇa and icchāparimāṇa), curb on unlimited cravings, unlimited accumulation and unlimited consumption. Acquisition of wealth is not bad, only attachment to it or its misuse is to be avoided. The guiding principle is, “Use that which is needful and give the surplus for charity”. The doctrine of aparigraha advocates limited use of natural resources, non-violence and vegetarianism (āhārasuddhehsattvaśuddhi)

There has to be sustainable production and fair distribution. Everyone has equal right to share the natural resources and therefore there should be no deprivation. This implies intra-generational justice and fair play and also inter-general justice and fair play.

Thus, aparigraha stands for non-consumerist attitude where in the policy is, there should be production only if needed and not first production and then arousal of needs as is the practice these days. The present-day policy of advertisement and seduction should be stopped. True renunciation is a state of mind of a human being. It is not only renunciation of unnecessary material goods or consumerist mindset but also evil thoughts and feelings (kaṣāyas), rigid attitudes and wrong beliefs. Carelessness, selfishness, obstinacy and greed are the causes of violence. Their eradication requires cultivation of pious mind by dhyāna and practice of virtuous conduct by observation of vows, particularly of giving up something as self -restraint.

New Paradigm of Economic Order- economics of non-violence and peace

Apart from individual and social moral disciplines referred to above we have to attend to world economic order which is closely related to and dependent upon the environment. The ignorance or failure of modern economic theory to acknowledge this fact has resulted in multiple ills and evils in the world. It has become a threat to the very system which has created it. The growth attained under this model is unsustainable. This apart it has made human self-centered, greedy, insensitive and violent. What is needed is a radical paradigm shift in economic planning and execution in the form of “Relative Economics”, “Regenerative Economics” and “Compassionate Economics”.

Need for cosmic vision

The vision of self-sameness of all existences and zealous longing for eradication of sufferings of others as one’s own cross all barriers of race, creed, country and even humanity. The benevolent teachings of universal compassion and cosmic goodwill, living and working for totality, all these have a significant message for the present-day distracted humankind suffering from exhaustion of spirit and languishing in the narrow and rigid confinements of ego-centrism, parochialism and disastrous materialistic consumerism. There is a dire need for a total transformation of our values, ideals, beliefs and attitudes. A time has come for the beginning of a cultural renaissance for which the Indian teachings can play a vital and pivotal role. Indian culture has come into existence as a problem-solving exercise both in terms of prevention and of cure. Indian teachings are of great relevance and significance in contemporary times and in the new millennium to bring about universal peace, prosperity and well-being. These should be our guiding lights for our ecological thinking and doings. On account of lack of restraints, selfishness and proneness to feed greed rather than catering to the needs there has been all round pollution of environment at all levels—physical, mental, emotional and intellectual. In modern times we are voicing concerns only for physical environment without paying due attention to other types with the result that not much headway is made even in protecting the physical. There cannot be divisive and lopsided approach to environment. Even at the physical level all the pañcabhūtas are to be taken care of. Environmental stewardship implies a sense of mutual care to be spearheaded by human being only.

These and related issues may be taken up for threadbare analysis. But apart from theorizing practical concerns must be paramount.  Knowledge without action is futile. In the Indian tradition it has been emphasized that right knowledge (samyak jñāna) has to fructify in right conduct (samyak charitra). In Indian culture great emphasis is laid on proper knowledge (samyak jñāna ). Knowledge is the only and surest way to spiritual perfection. The Indian scriptures therefore emphasize that we must draw a clear distinction between samyak jñāna and mithyā jñāna. Mithyā jñāna entangles us in the vicissitudes of worldly life. It is bewitching and bewildering and it springs from avidyā or ignorance. In order to have right knowledge right attitude or right mental make-up is necessary. This is samyak dṛṣṭi. Opposed to this is mithyā dṛṣṭi with which we generally suffer. Samyak dṛṣṭi leads to samyak jñāna, and the latter alone is the path way to mokṣa. Mithyā dṛṣṭi and mithyā jñāna do not serve any genuine purpose and hence they must be discarded. For an aspirant of mokṣa/mukti only samyak dṛṣṭi and jñāna are helpful. This is the main theme of the teachings of the scriptures, sages and saints. Samyak jñāna always leads to samyak caritra. The value and purpose of knowledge is not theoretical but necessarily practical. Right conduct ensues only from right knowledge. Conduct without knowledge is blind and knowledge without conduct is lame. The two are complimentary to each other. And therefore, knowledge has to lead to the corresponding conduct. Without right conduct deliverance from worldly miseries, trials and tribulations is impossible and without complete deliverance from these, no permanent happiness can be achieved. As said earlier, these are the three jewels of life which every human being must wear. But this wearing is not decoration but actual practice and concrete realization. However, this is not easy to achieve. It requires tapas and sādhanā, a rigorous control of body, will and mind. So, knowledge without conduct is useless. Merely listening to the discourses is wastage of time and futile. It does not help us in any way. What is needed is the ensuing conduct. But unfortunately, most of us forget this. We listen to the sermons of the spiritual persons but do not practice them. We take it as a past time or a matter of routine of life. Our knowledge remains mere information at the mental level. The Daśavaikālika sūtra (IV) compares a person having knowledge without practice to a donkey who carries burden of sandal wood without knowing its value or utility. As the donkey bears the burden of sandal wood but has no share in the wealth of his load, similarly a person without practice merely bears the burden of his knowledge. He cannot enjoy spiritual progress which is the real fruit of knowledge. Instead, he indulges in evanescent and fleeting worldly pleasures which invariably end up in pain and suffering or mental unhappiness or a feeling of vanity of life. Knowledge is useless without conduct and conduct is useless without knowledge. In Indian culture, philosophy and religion, view and way, theory and practice, are not divorced and segregated. Darśana is not mere reflection upon the nature of Reality but also a quest for and a realization of values. Basically, it is a mokṣa śāstra. There is a definite purpose in life and Reality if we care to know and a definite goal to achieve if we have a will to do so. Our existence is not meaningless. It has a value and significance. But we must first of all know what we are, what is the nature and purpose of life, what we should be in our life and how we can be so etc. The aim of human existence should be spiritual perfection through material progress. But material progress is only a means and not an end. The end is self-realization which is achieved through the removal of karmic matter and liberation from samsāra. There is potential divinity in human being and there must be effort for divinization. This is the ultimate teaching of all Indian scriptures (Āgamas).

What is role of education?

Education is a conscious, deliberate and planned process of modification in the natural growth and development of human being and the surroundings. If proper and adequate it ensures accelerated processes of development in human life in right rhythm. It is therefore a means for betterment and enhancement of quality of life. It is useful for personality development, character building, and for livelihood. It is a hall mark of civil society. But all this becomes utopia if it is not properly conceived and implemented.  If we have to draw eco-syllabus for eco-education it has to be on Indian foundation to be meaningful, efficacious and practical.

Conclusion

While concluding it should be reminded that human being is at the climax of evolutionary process. He/She possesses vast potentials for betterment or devastation. He/She can be a super-being or super-malignancy. He/She has a choice and also the capacity of judicious discrimination. Since he/she is the most evolved he/she should be the most responsible. He/She has not only to voice environmental concern but also to cultivate environmental consciousness. Mere sermons and seminars will not help. Unless the overall physical and social environment is congenial and symbiotic nothing will improve substantially.  For this we need environment friendly value system and a suitable code of conduct. There has to be inner moral conviction and a moral attitude.  We have to induce ecological age and ecological mind. Through proper education alone this is possible.

 

Author Brief Bio: Prof. S. R. Bhatt is Chairman, Indian Philosophy Congress; Chairman, Asian-African Philosophy Congress; Former Chairman, Indian Council of Philosophical Research, and Former Professor & Head, Department of Philosophy, University of Delhi.

Abstract:

The Vedic and Upanishadic texts describe “Dharma” as a cosmic force transcending space and time. Following the path of virtue aligns one with Dharma, leading to ethical behavior. Such individuals perceive the universe as a unified entity, not limited by race, religion, species, or group. Rishis and Avatars are periodically born to uphold the spirit of Dharma. Despite diverse origins, these enlightened beings embody non-violence (ahimsa), kindness (daya), compassion (karuna), cosmic friendship (maitri), and equanimity (upeksha) in their pursuit of the ultimate truth.

One notable genius, Prof. Albert Einstein, born on March 14, 1879,^[1] in South West Germany, received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his discovery of the Photoelectric effect.^[2] Einstein is revered not only as the “Father of Modern Physics” but also as a profound philosopher. Regardless of his numerous discoveries, he regarded all beings in the cosmos as manifestations of the Supreme Spirit, displaying compassion and friendship towards humans, animals, and other sentient beings. This notion of cosmic divinity and non-dual vision align with the foundation of the Upanishads.

Reading Albert Einstein’s letters reveals a striking resemblance of his thought with the verses of the Upanishads. This research paper aims to explore the parallels between Upanishadic and Einsteinian Philosophy, emphasising that the attainment of wisdom leads to a realisation of universal unity, non-violence, and a shared comradeship despite cultural differences.

Einstein’s Paradigm Shift: Embracing Spinoza’s Supreme over Abrahamic God

Baruch Spinoza, a 17th-century philosopher, faced exile from the Jewish community at the age of 23 due to his controversial views on God. He challenged the prevailing notions of a dominant, commanding, and personal God embraced by both Jews and Christians. Spinoza argued that the entire cosmos emerges from God, making it impossible for God to exercise control over His own manifested Self. According to Spinoza, God is solitary, impersonal, and impartial towards all creatures. He considered God as the ultimate cause of the cosmos, which operates according to a cosmic order known as “Substance.” In addition, Spinoza rejected the idea of a pluralistic God and instead embraced the concept of a singular force that manifests itself as the cosmos.^[3] Spinoza’s concept of God is relevant to this discussion because it is referenced by Albert Einstein when he was questioned about his belief in God by Rabbi Herbert, a Jewish leader in New York,

“I believe in Spinoza’s God who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the creation. He is not concerned about the fate and doing of mankind. To me all is in God; all lives and moves in God.^[4] A God who rewards and punishes his creatures is unthinkable because all beings act as prompted by natural law, which is God itself. Thus, I reject the idea of a personal God that judges the acts of his creation.^[5] I am fascinated by Spinoza’s pantheism. He is the first philosopher to see the soul and body as one and not as two distinct entities.^[6] I am not an atheist but I cannot accept God as an authority established by the church. I do not believe in fear of life, death and blind faith. I have no faith in the God of theology. ”^[7]

Similar to Spinoza, Einstein also rejected the traditional notion of the Jewish and Christian God. He believed that God was non-dual, existing inseparably from His creation, and revealed Himself through the objects and phenomena of the universe. Einstein further expressed the view that God is the origin of both good and bad, yet remains indifferent to individual acts of right and wrong. He asserted that the structure of the universe could not have been different from what it is currently.^[8] Einstein later renounced his Jewish faith and German citizenship, ultimately becoming an American citizen in 1940.^[9] Einstein expressed his great fascination in Upanishadic philosophy, despite never having visited India. The Bhagvadgita was highly revered by Einstein as he stated,

“When I read the Bhagvadgita and its theory of creation, everything else seemed superfluous.”^[10]

He nurtured close connections with Indian leaders and intellectuals, such as Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Rabindranath Tagore. During his time in the United States, he had the opportunity to engage in discussions on profound philosophical concepts with Rabindranath Tagore. Remarkably, Einstein did not consider himself an atheist but rather described himself as a “Religious Non-believer.” Therefore, he did believe in a cosmic power or universal order that expressed itself in its creation. He further propounded that the universe is a manifestation of the Cosmic Spirit, everything within it is inherently divine.

The Philosophical Nexus: Schopenhauer, Upanishads, and Einstein

Arthur Schopenhauer, a prominent German philosopher of the 19th century, held great influence during his time. He was deeply influenced by the Upanishads, and their profound impact is evident in his writings. Albert Einstein, in turn, drew inspiration from Schopenhauer’s ideas. As a result, Einstein himself became a determinist, influenced indirectly by the Upanishads through the philosophical lineage that passed from Schopenhauer to him.

Consequently, through Schopenhauer, the Upanishadic teachings reached Albert Einstein, influencing his beliefs. The idea of a Supreme Will governing the cosmic drama became the cornerstone of Einstein’s life, philosophy, and scientific breakthroughs. This concept shaped his worldview and guided his exploration of the universe. The following statement by Einstein demonstrates the influence of Schopenhauer’s ideas,

“Schopenhauer’s words “Man can do what he wills but he cannot will what he wills.” have accompanied me throughout my life. His thoughts have consoled me while dealing with others, even with those who have caused pain. This recognition of the lack of freedom of will have helped me in avoiding taking myself and others too seriously and have protected me from losing my sense of humor.”^[11]

Determinism in Upanishadic and Einsteinian Philosophy

The Upanishads encompass discussions on both determinism and free will. Notably, the Rigveda stands as the world’s first text to address determinism through the concept of “Rta,”^[12] which denotes a mystical cosmic order that intricately governs the functioning of everything. It lays the foundation for the development of the Vedic concepts of “Dharma”^[13] and “Satya. “^[14] The Shrimad Bhagavad Gita reflects determinism in its teachings. It emphasises that individuals, under the influence of Avidya (ignorance), mistakenly perceive themselves as the sole doers of their actions. However, the Gita reveals that they are unaware that it is the Supreme, operating through them, orchestrating the intricate functioning of the cosmos. This highlights the underlying concept of determinism in the Bhagavad Gita’s philosophy.^[15] Further, when we refer to the Upanishads, we find thousands of verses that speak of determinism, i.e,

ekohambahushayamah^[16]

(I am one and I become many).

In the above said, Chandogyaopnishad speaks about the predetermined divinity of all life forms.

yasmin sarvani bhutani atmaivabhud vijanatah|

 tatra ko mohah kah shloka ekatvamanupashyatah|| ^[17]

(When all beings have been realised as the ‘Self’, there remains no delusion and no sadness.)

The verse from the Ishavasya Upanishad suggests that the elimination of delusion and sorrow happens spontaneously when one strives to achieve a state of non-duality (Ekatmavada). Similarly, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad proclaims that everything is divine, implying that all beings are essentially the Supreme in disguise. These teachings imply a sense of pre-determination, as the Upanishads convey that the true nature of all beings is rooted in the Supreme. It further eradicates the difference between the cause and the effect,

purusha evedam sarvam yadbhūtam yacca bhavyam |

utamritatvasyeshano yadannenatirohati||^[18]

(All this is nothing but the Supreme Being, the One that was. The One that is, and the One that will be. He manifests as the world of material and remains the immortal one behind the mortal. )

Einsteinian philosophy is deeply rooted in the fundamental concept of determinism. It is worth highlighting that both Spinoza and Schopenhauer, who greatly influenced Einstein, were proponents of determinism themselves. Furthermore, Schopenhauer’s own views were heavily shaped by the teachings of the Upanishads. These interconnected influences demonstrate the profound impact of determinism and the Upanishads on Einstein’s philosophical framework. Einstine’s determinism can be comprehended from the following,

“God Himself could not have arranged the cosmic connection in any other way than that as it exists.”^[19]

“I do not believe in free will. Jews believe in free will. They believe that man can shape his own life. I reject this theory completely and in this respect, I am not a Jew. I am a determinist. Everything is determined, the beginning as well as the end, by forces over which we have no control. It is determined for the insect, stars, humans, vegetables, and cosmic dust. We all dance to a mysterious tune, intoned in the distance by an invisible player.”^[20]

Einstein held the belief that the functioning of everything in the cosmos is governed by a Supreme will. He considered the idea of individuals creating their own destiny as an egotistical folly. In this perspective, a clear parallel can be observed between the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and Einsteinian Philosophy. These philosophical frameworks all emphasise the existence of a higher power or cosmic order that influences the events and workings of the universe, challenging the notion of individual control over destiny.

The Moral Conundrum: Determinism and Einstein’s Ethical Framework

It is widely believed that determinists like Einstein lack ethics. This misunderstanding is the result of a superficial comprehension of his perspective. Einstein has been criticized for being A-ethical. He however made it clear that, philosophically, a person may not be accountable for his actions. However, at a worldly level, he must observe social customs, rules and laws. Einstein, thus states,

“I am compelled to act as if free will existed because if I wish to live in a civilized society, I must act responsibly. I may consider a murderer as not responsible for his acts on a philosophical level but at a mundane sphere I will prefer not to take tea with him”^[21]

Despite his belief in determinism, Einstein emphasizes the significance of ethics for maintaining social harmony. His view of determinism primarily pertains to larger cosmic phenomena, such as the predictable movements of the sun, the flow of water, or the nature of fire. However, he also acknowledges that ethics do not derive their authority from a Supreme power but are essential in the material world. This ethical perspective is evident in a suggestion Einstein gave to his daughters during his visit to Japan in 1922, wherein he stated,

“If you wish for a happy life, use for yourself little, but give to others much”^[22]

He further states at various occasions,

“Only morality in our actions can give dignity to our life”^[23]

“Academic chairs are many but wise and noble teachers are few, lecture-rooms are large but the number of young people who thirst for truth and justice are small.”^[24]

“I consider ethics to be an exclusively human concern with no superhuman authority behind it.“^[25]

While Einstein held a belief in determinism, he also recognized the importance of ethics in society. He emphasized that individuals must adhere to social customs, rules, and laws, even though he philosophically considered personal accountability to be influenced by determinism. Einstein’s ethical stance highlights the significance of responsible behavior and the pursuit of morality for a civilised society. Therefore, it is incorrect to assume that determinism and ethics are incompatible in Einstein’s perspective.

Reflections of Guilt: Einstein and the Hiroshima-Nagasaki Tragedy

Einstein, one of the key scientists involved in creating the atomic bomb, carried the weight of regret for the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. He deeply lamented the immense devastation caused by these bombings, which remained a source of pain throughout his life. The development of the bomb was motivated by concerns over Germany’s potential creation of a dangerous weapon, and Einstein’s famous “energy-mass equation (E=mc2).” played a role in its construction. However, the bomb was not deployed against Germany as the country had already surrendered to the Allies on May 7, 1945.^[26] Following the bombing of Japan, Einstein expressed deep remorse and sorrow. In response to the tragedy, he uttered the words, “Woe is me.” While advocating for peace, Einstein had written a letter along with other scientists to President Harry S. Truman on July 17, 1945, urging him not to proceed with the bombing. Despite their plea, the advice was disregarded, and the devastating event unfolded on August 6, 1945. Einstein’s poignant statement reflects his anguish and the profound impact the bombings had on him. He further stated,

 “If I knew that the Germans would not succeed at making an atom-bomb, I would’ve done nothing.”^[27]

Einstein’s Plate of Compassion: The Moral Imperative of Vegetarianism

It is true that Albert Einstein transitioned to a vegetarian lifestyle later in his life and expressed ethical reasons for his choice. While his digestive problems played a role in his decision, Einstein’s words and beliefs suggest a broader perspective on the ethical implications of consuming animal products. He recognized the interconnectedness of all beings and the moral dilemma of deriving pleasure from causing pain to other creatures. In light of this understanding, Einstein’s remarks indicate that if given the opportunity, he would have willingly embraced vegetarianism as a conscious ethical choice. Therefore, he states,

“I have always eaten animal flesh with a somewhat guilty conscience.”^[28]

“I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It always seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.”^[29]

“Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.”^[30]

“What is the meaning of human life, or, for that matter, of the life of any creature? To know an answer to this question means to be religious. You ask: Does it make any sense, then, to pose this question? I answer: The man who regards his own life and that of his fellow creatures as meaningless is not merely unhappy but hardly fit for life.”^[31]

A human being is a part of the whole, called by us the “Universe,” a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings, as something separate from the rest – a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty. Nobody is able to achieve this completely, but the striving for such achievement is in itself a part of the liberation and a foundation for inner security.^[32]

The concept of non-dualism, as emphasized in Upanishadic thought, provides a foundation for the importance of vegetarianism. The notion that everything is interconnected and divine leads to the recognition that there is no inherent distinction between beings. In this perspective, the act of causing harm or inflicting pain upon any living creature becomes contradictory and goes against the understanding of the inherent unity of all existence. It further becomes important to take note of the lives of enlightened individuals. Those who realised the self in all and all in the self often reflect a profound connection to vegetarianism. Figures such as Mahavira, Buddha, Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Mahatma Gandhi, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plotinus, Rumi, Nicola Tesla, Leonardo da Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton, Thomas Edison, and many others recognized the fundamental sameness and interconnectedness of all living beings. They understood that suffering is universal and does not discriminate based on size, name, or form.

The message of organic wholesomeness, cosmic divinity, compassion, kindness, and universal friendship, which finds mention in various Upanishadic texts, resonates with the ethical foundations of vegetarianism. It reflects the understanding that embracing a vegetarian lifestyle aligns with the principles of interconnectedness, compassion, and non-violence towards all living beings. This message of organic wholesomeness, cosmic divinity, compassion, kindness and universal friendship finds mention in various Upanishadic texts,

yacca kincit jagat sarvam drshyate shrooyate apivaa |

antar bahishca tatsarvam vyaapya naaraayanah sthithah ||^[33]

(Whatever in the universe is known through perception is pervaded and indwelled by Narayana)

aham atma gudakesha sarva-bhutaśhaya-sthitah|
aham adish cha madhyam cha bhutanam anta eva cha||^[34]

samoham sarvabhutesh na me dveshyosti na priyah|

ye bhajanti tu mam bhaktaya mayi te teshuchapyaham^[35]

(I exist as the atman in the hearts of all living creatures and I am the beginning, middle and end of all beings. I am the indwelling essence of all creatures and I have no likes or aversions.)

vo namo namo mrigyubhyash shvanibhyash cha|
vo namo namah shvabhyash shvapatibhyash cha vo namah||^[36]

(I bow to Rudra, the One who controls dogs, the one who Himself is the dog and the One who protects dogs)

abhayam nah pashubhyah^[37]

(animals must live without any fear)

tadaikshata bahu syam ^[38]

(I am one and I become many)

Accepting the Inevitable: Einstein’s Philosophy on Death

Like many yogis, Einstein did not view death as a tragedy but rather as a natural and predetermined occurrence. During a conversation with a friend while out for a stroll, the topic of “death” arose. When his friend stated that death is both a fact and a mystery, Einstein added, “..and a relief too.” This remark highlights Einstein’s perspective that death is not something to be feared or mourned but rather a release from the burdens and limitations of life. It reflects his acceptance of death as a part of the cosmic order and a potential liberation from earthly existence.^[39] Therefore, it can be inferred that Einstein had a positive outlook on death. As he grew older, he experienced various health issues and for the last 20 years of his life (1935–1955),^[40] he resided in Princeton, New Jersey. When faced with a ruptured blood vessel near his heart, doctors offered him the option of surgery. However, Einstein declined, saying,

“I want to go when I want to go. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share and it is time to go.”^[41]

Einstein’s words illuminate the Upanishadic concept of doing one’s tasks in the mode of renunciation (“I have done my share”) and not clinging to things, people, situations, or life (“it is time to go”). Additionally, the Shrimad Bhagvadgita declares,

“jatasya hi dhruvo mrityur dhruvam janma mritasya cha
tasmad apariharyeˊrthe na tvam shochitum arhasi ”^[42]

(Death is certain for the one born, and rebirth is destined for the one who died. Therefore, you shouldn’t mourn over the inevitable.)

Albert Einstein’s profound understanding of life and death stemmed from his journey from action to wisdom, body to self, material to the immaterial, and physical to the metaphysical. On April 18, 1955, at the age of seventy-six, Einstein departed from his material body. While he did not have faith in the concept of rebirth, he also did not see death as an end. His thoughts on the matter become clear from the following statements,

“I do not believe in immortality of the individual.^[43] Our death is not an end if we have lived on in our children and the younger generation. For they are us; our bodies are only wilted leaves on the tree of life.”^[44]

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the parallels between the Upanishadic philosophy and Albert Einstein’s worldview are indeed profound and striking. Both embrace the idea of a cosmic force or Supreme Spirit that transcends space and time, emphasising the interconnectedness and inherent divinity of all beings. Einstein’s rejection of a personal, commanding God aligns with the non-dual, pantheistic views found in the Upanishads and Spinoza’s philosophy. Moreover, Einstein’s recognition of a cosmic order and determinism in the universe reflects influences from Schopenhauer and the Upanishadic teachings. While he believed in determinism, Einstein also acknowledged the importance of ethics and responsible behavior, echoing the concept of Dharma found in the Vedic and Upanishadic texts. Einstein’s commitment to peace and deep sense of regret in the aftermath of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, further highlight his ethical concerns and his profound understanding of the interconnectedness of all life. His transition to vegetarianism demonstrates his recognition of the moral implications of causing harm to other creatures and the positive impact of compassionate choices. Ultimately, the exploration of the philosophical nexus between the Upanishads, Einsteinian Philosophy, and the influences of thinkers like Spinoza and Schopenhauer invites us to embrace compassion, non-violence, and a sense of shared comradeship. These perspectives transcend cultural differences and provide a deeper understanding of the cosmos, encouraging us to lead ethical lives and cultivate a harmonious relationship with the interconnected universe of which we are but fragments.

 

Author Brief Bio: Dr. Vandana Sharma ‘Diya’ is National Fellow at Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla; Principal Researcher, Kedarnath Dham, Ministry of Education and Former Post Doctoral Fellow-Indian Council of Social Sciences Research, Delhi.

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• Swami Gambhirananda, Eight Upanishads Shankarabhashya, Vol.2, Advaita Ashrama, Himalyas,1957
• Sharma Manohar Lal, Yajurveda, Laxmi Prakashan, Delhi, 2021.

ONLINE SOURCES:

• The Nobel Foundation, Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, Sweden https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
• Liberary of Congress, Declaration of Intention by Albert Einstein,1936, United States, https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcwdl.wdl_02745/?r=-1.31,-0.058,3.62,1.446,0
• National Archives, Surrender of Germany 1945, United States,

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/surrender-of-germany

• Newsweek, The Man Who Started It All, Online, 1947

https://time.com/5641891/einstein-szilard-letter.

• Wikipedia, 2018, Albert_Einstein_House, Online,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_House.

• Princeton University, Einstein’s Religiosity and the Role of Religion in his Life, Princeton University Press, http://www.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s6681.pdf

 

References

[1]The Nobel Foundation, Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, Sweden https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/

[2] Ibid.

[3]This thought is similar to the Vedantic thought where Brahman (Supreme) manifests as the entire Jagat (World) and can be seen in verses i.e.,  eko vashi sarvabhutantaratma ekam rupam  bahudha yah karoti (He indwells all beings as the very Self and He alone becomes manifold)  -Kathaopnishad Sankarabhashya, v.2.2.12;  Brahmopnishad, v.17; sarvam khalu idam brahma (All is the Brahman) -Chandogyaopnishad, 3.4.1; mahad brahma yena prananti virudhah (Brahman is the source of plants, herbs and all beings.)  -Atharvaveda, 1.32.1.

[4] Isaacson Walter, Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon and Schuster Ltd., London, 2008, pp.388-89

[5] Ibid, p.387

[6] Jammer Max, Einstein and Religion, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1999, p.36

[7] Isaacson Walter, pp.388-89

[8] Ibid., p.392

[9]Liberary of Congress, Declaration of Intention by Albert Einstein,1936, United States, https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcwdl.wdl_02745/?r=-1.31,-0.058,3.62,1.446,0

[10] Isaacson Walter, p.157

[11]Albert Einstein, Mein Glaubensbekenntnis, Audio Records, Online Yeshiva University Libraries, 1932, https://library.yu.edu/c.php?g=1073982&p=7880252 (Accessd on, April 22, 2023; 13:02)

[12] Unchanging truth, unalterable codes of conduct, constant cosmic law, unweaving universal order, and cyclical natural occurrences like birth, death, ageing, and seasons etc.

 

[13] Dharma encompasses various meanings and dimensions within its essence: 1. Svabhava: It refers to the inherent nature or characteristics of an entity, be it an object, animal, tree, or human. 2. Cosmic Order: Dharma represents the fixed and harmonious cosmic order (Rta) that governs the functioning of the universe. It signifies the consistent patterns and laws that ensure the sun rises and sets, and other cosmic phenomena occur predictably. 3. Duty and Responsibility: Dharma encompasses the idea of fulfilling one’s duties and responsibilities in various contexts, such as manavdharma (duties as a human), patidharma (duties as a spouse), rashtradharma (duties as a citizen), and more. 4. Social Norms: Dharma includes adhering to social norms and codes of conduct, such as loyalty to one’s partner, respecting authority figures like kings or leaders, and showing reverence for nature. 5. Purushartha: Dharma plays a role in the pursuit of Purushartha, the four-fold goals of life, which are Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kama (desires), and Moksha (liberation). 6. Religion: Dharma can be understood as a religious path centered around ethical codes that promote the well-being of all beings, transcending solely human concerns. Hindu Dharma, Jaina Dharma, and Bauddha Dharma can be considered Dharmic religions in this sense, while Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are not typically classified under Dharma. 7. Virtue: Dharma also encompasses virtuous actions and behaviors, such as watering plants, feeding animals, and providing care for the sick and ailing, extending compassion and kindness to all sentient beings.

[14] Satya represents the concept of truth in various aspects: 1. Acceptance: Satya entails accepting everything and every being in their natural form without attempting to forcefully alter or modify them. Forcing changes upon creatures mentally, physically, or genetically for personal pleasure is considered untruthful or Asatya. 2. Respect for Mother Nature: Satya involves refraining from taking away the resources of Mother Nature with the intention of accumulating them for personal gain. Taking fruits from a tree to satisfy one’s natural hunger is an act of truthfulness (Satya), whereas doing so out of greed is considered untruthful (Asatya). 3. Expressions and Virtues: The concept of Satya manifests as honesty, truthfulness, loyalty, calmness, acceptance, appreciation for everything and every being, compassion, kindness, and having an equanimous vision towards the entire cosmos. 4. Integration into Life: Satya is to be practiced in words, thoughts, actions, and as the foundational principle of life. Engaging in acts such as killing, altering someone or something, destruction, and causing harm for sensory pleasure or other reasons falls under the umbrella of Asatya or untruthfulness. In essence, Satya encompasses embracing truthfulness, honesty, and a deep respect for the natural order of the cosmos, fostering compassion and kindness towards all beings, and adhering to a life guided by these principles in all aspects.

[15] Shrimad Bhagvadgita, v.18.16 (tatraivam sati kartaramatmanam kevalam tu yah| pashyatyakitabuddhitvanna sa pashyati durmatih||)

[16] Chandogyaopnishad, v.6.2.3

[17] Ishavasyaopnishad, v.6

[18] Shevetashvataraopnishad, v.3.14

[19] Isaacson Walter, Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon and Schuster Ltd., London, 2008, p.392

[20] Ibid.,pp.387; 392

[21] Ibid.,pp.392; 393

[22] Ibid.,p.393

[23] Isaacson Walter, Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon and Schuster Ltd., London, 2008, p.353

[24] Einstein Albert, The World as I see it, Filiqualian Publishing, Minnesota, 2005, p.8

[25] Einstein Albert, The Human Side, Princeton University Press, New Jerssy, 1981, p.40

[26] National Archives, Surrender of Germany 1945, United States, https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/surrender-of-germany

[27] Newsweek, The Man Who Started It All, Online, 1947, https://time.com/5641891/einstein-szilard-letter.

[28] Einstein Albert, The Quotable Einstein on Death, Princeton University Press, 1910, Letter to Max Kariel, August 3, 1953

[29]Ibid., Letter to Hans Muehsam, March 30, 1954

[30] Ibid, Letter to Hermann Huth, December 27, 1930.

[31] Einstein Albert,  Mein Weltbild, Amsterdam: Querido Verlag, First ed, 1934

[32] New York Post, 28 November 1972

[33] Yajurveda, Narayanasuktam, v10.13.5

[34] Shrimad Bhagvadgita, 10.20

[35] Ibid, 9.29

[36] Yajurveda, Rudramsukta, 4.5.4

[37] Yajurveda, 36.22

[38] Chandogyopnishad, 6.2.3

[39] Ghatak Ajoy, Albert Einstein: Glimpse of Life, Philosophy and Science, Viva Books, New Delhi, 1911, p.133.

[40] Wikipedia, 2018, Albert_Einstein_House, Online, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_House

[41] Ghatak Ajoy, p.160

[42] Shirmad Bhagvadgita,v.2.27.

[43] Dukas Helen & Hoffmann Banesh, Albert Einstein: The Human Side (New Glimpses From His Archives), Princeton University Press, 1981, p.39

[44] Einstein Albert, The Quotable Einstein on Death, Princeton University Press, 1910, p.91

The war for uranium and oil now looms over Niger. An invasion by the France- and US-backed Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is only a matter of time, possibly as early as the conclusion of the 15th BRICS summit in Johannesburg, South Africa, from August 22-24, 2023. The new military government urged citizens to stand up and defend the Motherland, and in response, thousands registered as Niger Volunteers in Niamey (August 19, 2023).

Timofey Bordachev, Program Director, Valdai Discussion Club, suspects that Paris and Washington may indirectly support the ECOWAS nations as French and American contingents have a sizeable presence in the country.^[1] ECOWAS countries have been reluctant to get into the fray, arguing that the military regime in Niger enjoys considerable public support, but their acute dependence on the West has overruled their qualms.

The NATO aggression against Libya and brutalisation of Col. Muammar Gaddafi in 2011 has had a sobering effect in Africa, hence the West wants the cover of its regional partners in the military action. Gaddafi created Africa’s best welfare state with Libya’s oil wealth, with huge gold (140 tonnes) and foreign exchange (US$ 150 billion) reserves, zero debt and one of the world’s strongest currencies. His advocacy of the gold-backed African dinar proved his undoing.

Chad’s President Mahamat Idriss Déby Itno attempted to mediate the crisis at the behest of ECOWAS (July 30, 2023).^[2] The organisation gave the military regime a week to restore the ousted Prime Minister Mohamed Bazoum, a deadline that expired on August 6, 2023. The West African regional bloc also sent a delegation led by former Nigerian military leader Abdulsalami Abubakar to Niger on August 2, 2023 to negotiate with the military coup leaders. Abdel-Fatau Musah, ECOWAS commissioner for political affairs, then said, “The military option is the very last option on the table, the last resort, but we have to prepare for the eventuality.”^[3]

Niger’s coup leaders have maintained that the civilian government was overthrown because of poor governance and public unhappiness over its inability to tackle security threats from groups linked to al-Qaeda and ISIS (ISIL). The citizens of Niger are not enthused at the prospect of restoring the pro-Western president Bazoum, an ethnic Arab from the migrant Ouled Slimane tribe that aligns with France in the Sahel region and is embroiled in a long conflict with the ancient Tuareg tribes, Berbers who dwell in the Sahara from Libya to Algeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and northern Nigeria.^[4]

The coup leaders immediately banned the export of uranium to France. Niger holds the world’s seventh-largest uranium deposits, and has hitherto supplied France 15% of her total imports and one-fifth of the European Union’s imports. Uranium is a critical element for powering nuclear reactors.^[5] In 2019 alone, two mines operating in Niger extracted nearly 2,982 tonnes of uranium. Unlike Germany, France did not accept rapid deindustrialisation on account of US-imposed sanctions on Russian oil and gas, and instead scaled up its nuclear power plants. Its other suppliers, like Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, rely on the Russian state nuclear power company Rosatom to transport uranium to Europe, putting France in an awkward position.

Political scientist Bertrand Badie of the French Institute of Political Studies, observed that France has failed to “get rid of all its colonial history.” France, he said, “doesn’t know how to turn the page, … France, since independence by the African states, has pursued a schoolteacher diplomacy based on the temptation to give lessons and distribute punishments.” This approach is out of sync with the evolution of African societies.

Diplomat M.K. Bhadrakumar observes that Western powers do not understand that the African people have a highly politicized mindset on account of their violent and bitterly fought national liberation movements. This history explains why Africa quickly gravitated towards the emerging multipolar world, in order to negotiate with the ex-colonial masters from a position of strength.

The present crisis escalated when Niger’s new president General Abdurrahman Tchiani banned the export of gold and uranium to Paris, on July 30, 2023, in response to France’s decision to suspend aid to Niamey after its military coup. As various West African nations took sides, the now popular military regime appears to have triggered the Dark Continent’s fight for self-respect and agency, by asserting control over the rich resources that have powered the wealth of the Western industrial nations.

The toppled President M. Bazoum, deposed on July 26, 2023, invited France to attack Niger and restore his government, and warned the West against Russia gaining a foothold in the Sahel region via its private military vehicle, Wagner.

Loss of resources

Angered by the loss of natural resources that secured its international status as a leading economic power, France nudged the ECOWAS to intervene in Niger. After a meeting of the Chiefs of the General Staffs of the Armed Forces of the ECOWAS in Accra, Ghana, on August 17-18, 2023, Abdel-Fatau Musah, Commissioner for Peace and Security, said the date has been set but ECOWAS will not announce it.^[6]

Musah said, “Let no one be in doubt that if everything else fails the valiant forces of West Africa, both the military and the civilian components, are ready to answer the call of duty.” He added, “Meanwhile, we are still giving diplomacy a chance and the ball is in the court of the junta.” Ivory Coast, Benin and Nigeria are expected to contribute troops to the force mandated to invade Niger.

ECOWAS has already applied trade and financial sanctions on Niger while France, Germany and the United States have suspended aid programmes. Germany is pressing for EU sanctions on the coup leaders. The European Union has announced its willingness to support a military operation against Niger if requested by the pro-Western governments in ECOWAS.

Despite misgivings in some member nations, only Cape Verde and countries led by military governments resisted the proposed military action against Niger. The remaining countries in the 15-member bloc agreed to contribute to the regional force, namely, Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.

The pressure to act is largely due to the fact that Niger is the fourth West African nation since 2020 in which a coup has taken place, following Mali, Burkina Faso and Guinea. The Sahel region is also plagued by armed groups linked to al-Qaeda and ISIL (ISIS) and this violence partly contributed to the military takeovers.

An important reason for the secrecy involved in the proposed military action includes possible repercussions for Nigeria that is struggling to control the activities of several armed groups in the country. There are fears that armed groups in Niger could spill into Nigeria in the event of a military intervention.

Burkina Faso and Mali have deployed combat aircraft to “respond to any form of aggression against Niger” and threatened to withdraw from the ECOWAS if it invades Niger.^[7] The Burkinabe and Malian authorities also rejected ECOWAS’ “illegal, illegitimate and inhumane sanctions against the people and authorities of Niger”. The sanctions include a halt in all financial transactions and a national assets freeze. Algeria and Libya joined them, denouncing the sanctions as “inhumane and immoral.”

The office of Guinea’s President Mamady Doumbouya, in a social media post on August 14, 2023, said the sanctions “would not be a solution to the current problem but would lead to a humanitarian disaster whose consequences could extend beyond the borders of Niger”. It urged

ECOWAS to “reconsider its position”.

Gearing up for the conflict, however, Niger has arrested senior officials of the toppled government, including the interior minister, transport minister, a former defence minister, mines minister, oil minister and the head of the (formerly) ruling party.

Trans-Saharan gas pipeline

Besides uranium, the future of a Trans-Saharan gas pipeline from Nigeria to Morocco to Europe is now at stake. Niger is on the transit route and has refused to host the pipeline (30 billion m³ of gas per annum) which Europe needs to make up for the loss of Russian gas.

Burkina Faso has launched a new state enterprise to sell domestically produced raw materials like gold. It has resumed diplomatic ties with North Korea and terminated the Tax Treaty for Non-Double Taxation between Ouagadougou and Paris, which denied Burkina Faso tax for wealth earned in the country.

Moreover, in Guinea, that is rich in gold, diamonds, iron, bauxite (used to produce aluminium for the motor vehicle and goods industries), President Col. Mamady Doumbouya in October 2022 ordered foreign mining companies to refine resources locally and share the revenue fairly with the country. At a meeting with stakeholders in Conakry, he asked all foreign companies to submit proposals and a timetable for the construction of bauxite refineries by the end of May 2023.^[8] A ban on unprocessed raw materials is now on the anvil as Guinea begins cracking down on defaulting companies.

Doumbouya said, “Despite the mining boom in the bauxite sector, we have to admit that the expected revenues are below expectations, and you and we cannot continue this game of fools that perpetuates great inequality in our relations.” Guinea has the world’s largest reserves of bauxite (7.4 billion tonnes), and is also the second largest producer. China imports nearly half of its bauxite needs from Guinea. Tanzania banned the export of minerals in raw form in 2017.

ECOWAS announced the closure of the region’s borders with Niger. Nigeria disconnected the high-voltage line transporting electricity to Niger, which relies on Nigeria for 70 percent of its power. As the World Bank, France, the European Union, the US and the ECOWAS regional central bank controlled by France suspend aid to Niger, its internal situation is unclear, though the popular reaction favours the coupists, with protesters chanting outside the French embassy in Niamey, “Long live Russia”, “Long live Putin” and “Down with France”. They set fire to the walls of the embassy compound.

A number of countries felt uneasy over military action in Niger, and public protests broke out in Senegal. The Military Council in Niger withdrew its ambassadors from France, Nigeria, Togo, and the United States and announced the closure of the country’s airspace until further notice.

Russia

Russia has said that military intervention by ECOWAS against a sovereign state would be unhelpful.^[9] The Russian diplomatic spokesperson, Maria Zakharova, said Moscow considers it essential to “prevent a new degradation” of the situation in the country.

At the Russia-Africa summit in St. Petersburg in July 2023, President Vladimir Putin had stated that Russia has signed agreements for military cooperation with over 40 African countries, for “bolstering the defence capability of the continent’s countries.”^[10] The agreements cover military-technical cooperation and supply of a wide range of armaments and hardware. Soon after tensions escalated with France, Russian cargo planes were seen landing at Niamey Airport in Niger.

Moreover, after terminating the wheat export deal through Ukraine, Putin assured the continent that Russia would remain a reliable supplier of grain. He promised to provide Zimbabwe, Mali, Burkina Faso, Somalia, Eritrea and the Central African Republic with 25,000 to 50,000 tons of grain for free, without any conditions and with free delivery, in the next three to four months. The Russian embassy in Burkina Faso was reopened after 31 years.

At the United Nations on August 4, 2023, Russian diplomat Dmitry Polyanskiy said,^[11] “Russia has never considered Africa, Asia, or Latin America as a space for the extraction of profit… we have and will build factories, schools, hospitals and universities so that you can use your natural resources to manufacture finished goods with added value, instead of exporting raw materials.”

The rebellious African nations are not without friends. Iran has an long standing anti-imperialist agenda. Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan endorsed Niger’s suspension of gold and uranium exports to France, calling it the result of ‘years of oppression’ by Paris.^[12] “What France did in Algeria in the past, what it did in Rwanda, what it did in Mali, all these are in all the archives of the world. And especially Africans know this very well.” Erdoğan said Turkey would assist in securing grain exports from Russia to Africa and ‘underdeveloped countries.’

Wagner

Niger’s General Salifu Modi requested help from the Russian mercenary group Wagner, during a visit to Bamako, Mali, on August 4, 2023, where he discussed the situation with leaders of Mali and Burkina Faso.^[13] Wagner representatives reportedly arrived on August 5, 2023.

Giving his views about Niger’s problems, the late Wagner chief Yevgeny Prigozhin said, “I will answer what is the basis for the change of power in Niger. The basis is the economy. The population of Niger has been driven into poverty for a long time. For example, a French company that extracted uranium sold it on the market for $218, while paying Niger only $11 for it. You can work with investors on a 50-50 or 30-70 (%) basis, but it’s impossible to give back to the indigenous people of the country, who were born in this country, who live in this country, and who expect that the natural resources of this country belong to them, and according to the Constitution, they belong to them, only 5% of the wealth you receive.”

Pointing a finger at the Western powers, Prigozhin said Niger was flooded with terrorists “to cover up these economic crimes.” The ousted president served the old colonial powers, facilitating the extraction of Niger’s natural wealth, hence the military coup was “a liberation movement for the independence of this country, and God grant them success.” Prigozhin endorsed the coup and said the situation had been brewing for a while. “The former colonisers are trying to keep the people of African countries in check,” he added in his audio message on the Telegram app.^[14]

Nuland

The US Deputy Secretary of State and veteran colour revolution instigator, Victoria Nuland, rushed to Niger on August 7, 2023, the day after the deadline to reinstate the ousted president expired (August 6). She told CNN that she held “extremely frank and at times quite difficult” talks with General Moussa Salaou Barmou, the new chief of defense, and three colonels. Her request to meet the former president Bazoum was denied.^[15] In fact, the coup leaders threatened that they would physically eliminate Bazoum if she pushed the envelope.

CFA Franc

Regardless of the outcome of the impending war, it is only a matter of time before the West African nations abandon the CFA franc (France of the Financial Community of Africa) imposed by France on its former colonies, which are also forced to hold their foreign-exchange reserves in the French Treasury and the Bank of France.^[16]

In fact, Paris decides on what and how they spend their money. French companies have the first right of refusal on any major projects. The Bank of France prints their CFA currency and largely determines the broad framework of economic and monetary policy. The commanding heights of most African Francophone economies are controlled by France. French mining interests call the shots with regard to their natural resources.

Military bases

France and the US both have military bases in Niger. The US has an 1,100-strong military presence in the country and a drone base (airbase 201) near Agadez in central Niger, built at a cost of more than $100 million. Since 2018 it has been used for operations in the Sahel. Cameron Hudson, a former US official and Africa specialist at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC, believes that Washington will try to retain this facility irrespective of who is in charge in Niger.

A showdown between the regional states seems inevitable, in view of the rising opposition to the French hegemony in Sahelian Africa.

 

Author Brief Bio: Sandhya Jain is a political analyst, independent researcher, and author of multiple books. She is also editor of the platform Vijayvaani.

 

References:

[1] The West’s attempt to create a Ukrainian scenario in Niger is faltering, Timofey Bordachev, August 19, 2023.

https://on.rt.com/cgob

[2] Niger coup: Ousted President Mohamed Bazoum meets Chad’s leader, BBC News, July 31, 2023.

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66358951

[3] Supporters of Nigerien President Mohamed Bazoum gather to show their support for him in Niamey on July 26, Aljazeera, August 2, 2023.

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/2/west-african-bloc-sends-mission-to-niger-to-negotiate-with-coup-leaders#:~:text=West%20African%20regional%20bloc%20ECOWAS,day%20meeting%20in%20neighbouring%20Nigeria

[4] How the US and France created a Niger mess for themselves, M.K. Bhadrakumar, August 19, 2023.

https://on.rt.com/cgox

[5] France loses its uranium meal ticket in Niger, Rachel Marsden, RT, 1 Aug, 2023

https://www.rt.com/news/580676-niger-coup-france-uranium/

[6] ECOWAS defence chiefs continue talks on possible Niger intervention, Aljazeera, August 18, 2023.

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/18/ecowas-defence-chiefs-continue-talks-on-possible-niger-intervention

[7] Burkina Faso, Mali warn against military intervention in Niger, August 1, 2023.

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/1/burkina-faso-and-mali-warn-against-foreign-intervention-after-niger-coup

[8] Guinea: Foreign Mining companies ordered to process bauxite on site, AFP, October 26, 2022.

https://www.africanews.com/2022/04/10/guinea-mining-companies-ordered-to-process-bauxite-on-site//

[9] ‘It’ll not help’ — Russia advises ECOWAS against military intervention in Niger, The Cable, August 2, 2023.

https://www.thecable.ng/itll-not-help-russia-advises-ecowas-against-military-intervention-in-niger

[10] Putin Claims Russia Has Signed Military Deals With 40 African Countries, Daily Trust, July 29, Jul 2023

https://dailytrust.com/putin-claims-russia-has-signed-military-deals-with-40-african-countries/#:~:text=On%20Friday%2C%20the%20Russian%20president,next%20three%20to%20four%20months.

[11] https://twitter.com/upholdreality/status/1687202185682059264

[12] Turkey: Niger’s suspension of gold, uranium exports to France result of years of oppression by Paris – Erdogan, August 5, 2023. https://www.ruptly.tv/en/videos/20230805-002-turkey-niger-s-suspension-of-gold-uranium-exports-to-france-result-of-years-of-oppression-by-paris-erdogan

[13] Niger’s junta asks for help from Russian group Wagner as it faces military intervention threat, AP, August 6, 2023.

https://apnews.com/article/wagner-russia-coup-niger-military-force-e0e1108b58a9e955af465a3efe6605c0

[14] Burkina Faso, Mali warn against military intervention in Niger, Aljazeera, August 1, 2023.

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/1/burkina-faso-and-mali-warn-against-foreign-intervention-after-niger-coup

[15] Niger’s junta rejects a diplomatic visit by regional and UN officials over ‘atmosphere of menace’, AP, August 9, 2023.

https://apnews.com/article/niger-coup-victoria-nuland-west-africa-jihadis-4f21ee42f7e87b3747a322709d8d1bbc

[16] How France Underdeveloped Africa, Obadiah Mailafia, February 5, 2019.

https://www.vanguardngr.com/2019/02/how-france-underdeveloped-africa/

India Foundation organised a roundtable discussion on “BRICS Expansion and Currencies” at India Foundation Office on 11 August 2023. The discussion was Chaired by Shri Ram Madhav, President, India Foundation and the session was addressed by Mr. Roman Babushkin, Minister-Counsellor, DCM, Embassy of the Russian Federation in India, Amb. Rajiv Bhatia, Former Ambassador & Distinguished Fellow, Foreign Studies Programme, Gateway House and Dr. Zorawar Daulet Singh, Adjunct fellow, Institute of Chinese Studies, New Delhi. 45 people participated in the discussion.

 

The discussion focused on BRICS expansion and also on the possibility of adoption of a new currency system to facilitate trade and financial settlements among member countries. Given the existing financial institutions run by the BRICS, the discussion tried to cover important aspects like how should the proposed system rely on direct payment in the respective national currencies, establish a ‘common basket’ or will a new denomination needs to be created? Speakers also highlighted that in the evolving global scenario, BRICS plays an increasingly important role and it should be analysed from the respective standpoints of its member states and their civil societies.

In his opening remarks, Mr. Roman Babushkin, Minister-Counsellor, DCM, Embassy of the Russian Federation in India, said that “In BRICS, there is no place for a dictate, domination, unilateral and confrontational approaches, sanctions, weaponization of economy and currencies, as well as interference in domestic affairs”. Mr Babushkin also said that “BRICS exemplifies a new formation, which can be called a flexible integration based on consensus and being truly comprehensive. More than 70 formats of practical cooperation are structured in the three pillars – policy and security, economy and finance as well as humanitarian ties. All that makes this Association even stronger than any agreement-based supranational Alliance or a bloc”.

Ambassador Rajiv Bhatia in his address said that the core agenda of BRICS is to present a non-western view of the world and not an anti-West view. Amb Bhatia also explained the Intra-BRICS dynamics that needs to be taken into account in assessing the present and future trajectory of BRICS. Dr. Zorawar Daulet Singh in his address highlighted that by creating BRICS and showing that it could work, the five nations are projecting an alternative to the current West-led global order.

 

The initial remarks at the roundtable discussion were followed by an engaging Q&A session where participants also raised and highlighted important issues related to theme of the discussion.

Introduction

Among the world’s most important and influential multilateral groupings, BRICS is invariably noticed as a club of emerging economies – three from Asia (China, India, Russia) and one each from Africa (South Africa) and Latin America (Brazil). It is perceived as a counterweight to G7, the grouping of the developed nations. Notably, a BRICS member (China) has become the world’s second-largest economy and another member (India) is the fifth-largest economy.[1] BRICS and G7 are key pillars of G20, the premier international economic forum, with India holding the latter’s presidency in 2023, which will move to two other BRICS members (Brazil and South Africa) in 2024 and 2025 respectively.

As a grouping of five nations, BRICS represents 27% of the world’s land area, 42% of the population,  16% of international trade, 27% of global GDP in nominal terms, and 32.5% in PPP terms. Heading to its 15^th summit to be held in Johannesburg on 22-24 August 2023, it draws international attention not only for its past record of achievements and failings but also for its internal dynamics and new challenges. These include the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and Ukraine conflict, proposed expansion and other aspects of institutional development, and its management of economic cooperation among its members as well as in relation to the Global South. A comprehensive assessment of the relevant facets of BRICS as an institution, during its journey from September 2006 to July 2023, is offered below as a means to explain what is at stake at the forthcoming summit.

That the BRICS’ journey has been a fascinating one is beyond doubt. But the question of whether BRICS, in its second decade, will achieve its optimal potential remains intensely debatable. The acronym ‘BRIC’ was coined by Jim O’Neil of Goldman Sachs in 2001, predicting that the four fast-growing economies (of Brazil, Russia, India and China) would collectively dominate the world economy by 2050. However, the BRICS of today has evolved quite differently. Three milestones in its initial trajectory are particularly noteworthy: September 2006 when the foreign ministers of Brazil, Russia, India and China met in New York on the sidelines of the UNGA session to launch a new grouping; June 2009 when the first BRIC summit was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia; and April 2011 when South Africa attended the summit for the first time, giving to the group its current name – BRICS.

BRICS will turn into an adult at 18, next year. When its top leaders[2] meet at the Sandton Convention Center, Johannesburg in August 2023, they will tackle the principal challenge of retaining its basic cohesion and internal solidarity while increasing its impact and influence in the world today. They will do so against the backdrop of the ongoing overarching US-China strategic contestation and the impact of other geopolitical developments.

Goals, driving impulses

The early formative years of BRICS witnessed the decline of the US-led G7 dominance and the imperative compulsion of the industrialized West to engage emerging economies, especially China, for helping resolve the 2008 global financial crisis. The BRIC foreign ministers in 2006 foresaw the need for greater multipolarity. The elevation of G20 to the highest political level in 2008 was a step in that direction. The first BRICS summit in 2009, therefore, called for “a more democratic and just multi-polar world order” and advocated peaceful resolution of “disputes in international relations.” It also articulated its commitment to “advance the reform of international financial institutions, to reflect changes in the global economy.” Above all, it stressed “the central role of G20 summits in dealing with the financial crisis.”[3]

Besides, BRICS covered other important issues such as improvements in multilateral trade systems, implementation of the concept of sustainable development, the pressing needs of developing countries (e.g., increasing development assistance, debt relief, etc.), counter-terrorism, and commitment to multilateral diplomacy.[4] All these themes became integral elements of subsequent summits and of their outcome documents.

As the following decade unfolded, the annual summits, held with remarkable regularity, explored many other dimensions of international economic and political questions, articulating the shared perspectives of the five member states and pushing for a coordinated approach. They also created multiple platforms for internal cooperation on a wide range of issues stretching from macroeconomics, trade and investment to health, agriculture, crime and corruption. The BRICS agenda has continuously expanded. As John Kirton, director of the BRICS Research Group at the University of Toronto, noted, “The summit communiqués; have grown in length from just under 2,000 words in 2009 to a peak of 22,000 in 2014, then declined to 8,400 in 2018.”[5] He also pointed out that between 2009 and 2021, BRICS leaders made “844 commitments” pertaining to international cooperation, development, regional security, trade, digital economy, and other issues.

Achievements, disappointments

BRICS had a fairly decent record of progress to show in its first decade (2006–16). It crafted and projected a non-Western view of the world; strengthened multipolarity by serving as a bridge between the Global North and the Global South; helped in improving emerging economies’  quotas in IMF and World Bank; and created the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA). It also focused on its broad ambition to deploy “all policy tools” and adopt “innovation-driven development strategies” to enhance the resilience and potential of BRICS economies and contribute to the global economy.[6]

Yet BRICS has disappointed its supporters on several counts. A clear majority of its members (Brazil, South Africa and India) has been dismayed by the minority view (of Russia and China) on the reform of the UN Security Council. The minority group failed to support the case for permanent membership of the IBSA nations and refused to move beyond a frozen formulation.[7] Countless meetings of BRICS leaders, ministers and others and endless reams of documents produced have not been backed by adequate tangible action. BRICS summits executed ‘outreach’ by convening meetings of leaders of the host country’s neighbours (such as BIMSTEC in 2016) or even of a larger international group such as the one convened by China in 2018. Yet BRICS provided little concrete assistance to these guest countries, except probably giving them the satisfaction of being associated with an important multilateral forum. From this arose the momentum for the expansion of BRICS.

Internal dynamics

Intra-BRICS dynamics need to be taken into account in assessing its present and future trajectory. In theory, all five members are equal, guided by mutual respect and shared interests that bind them together in the quest for common goals. In reality, an obvious asymmetry marks their relationship: China’s contribution to the world GDP is bigger than the GDP of the other four combined.[8] Besides being the world’s second-largest economy, China nurtures ambition and displays an aggressive drive to become the No.1 power, displacing the U.S. This has created complications in Asia, especially for India. After the bloody clash between Chinese and Indian troops in the Galwan Valley in June 2020 and the failure of bilateral diplomacy in the past three years to resolve contentious issues, China-India relations remain seriously strained.[9] The resultant trends in India’s foreign policy to strengthen relations with the West, especially the U.S. and France, and to consolidate the Quad in the Indo-Pacific have caused much annoyance to Beijing. To think that BRICS can be insulated from these geopolitical developments is to expose one’s naivety.

The war between Russia and Ukraine which broke out in February 2022 proved to be another source of tensions within the BRICS. Despite its close strategic partnership with Moscow, New Delhi chose to adopt a calibrated position – one favouring diplomacy and dialogue rather than siding openly with one or the other party to the conflict. China swore by respect for territorial integrity and national sovereignty and postured to serve as a mediator, though it has in fact supported Russia, given its “no limits” partnership with it. Brazil and South Africa too have been adversely affected by the conflict, coming under heavy Western pressure to condemn Russia. With Moscow’s failure to decisively win the war so far, compounded by internal problems exposed by the Wagner Group’s alleged ‘mutiny’, Russia stands as a beleaguered power today. A comparatively weaker Russia, increasingly dependent on China, is a recipe for increased imbalance within the BRICS. Insiders point out that the two nations often act as a sub-group within the grouping.

The other three nations – India, South Africa and Brazil – are linked through a common allegiance to the IBSA Dialogue Forum. As leading democracies of three continents, which clearly belong to the Global South, they have more in common among them than the authoritarian governance system of Russia and China’s one party regime. However seasoned observers note that the IBSA members are far from pulling their weight together in order to ensure a better equilibrium within the BRICS.

In short, the five BRICS members need to first improve their internal dynamics and consolidate their inner cohesion, while seeking to address regional and global challenges. Otherwise, their hyped-up rhetoric and verbosity may prove ineffective in the real world.

Johannesburg – key issues

In the foregoing context, the 15^th summit at Johannesburg assumes considerable significance. Its signature theme is “BRICS and Africa Partnership for Mutually Accelerated Growth, Sustainable Development, and Inclusive Multilateralism.” How it handles certain key issues will be watched with widespread interest.[10]  These are analyzed below.

Expansion of the membership of BRICS is perhaps the No. 1 issue. The Foreign Ministers’ meeting in Cape Town in June, and the Sherpas’ meeting in Durban in July accorded primacy to it. They attempted to develop consensus on “the guiding principles, standards, criteria and procedures for this expansion process,” as directed by the leaders at the 14^th  summit.[11]  At the end of the Sherpas’ Durban meeting, Ambassador Anil Sooklal, the South African sherpa, announced that the five sherpas were “highly satisfied that we have produced a good report and outcome document.”[12] This was interpreted to mean that a broad agreement was reached among the officials, though it was subject to collective approval by the top political leaders.

What are the likely contours of this agreement? Two facts are clear: first, at least 19 countries (later increased to 22) have expressed interest in one form or another in joining the BRICS[13]; and second, disagreement among BRICS members existed, with China and Russia perceived as pushing for rapid expansion, while Brazil and India advocate a cautious, go-slow approach. South Africa found itself somewhere in the middle but was generally inclined to accept several new members. In reality, it was learned later that China was, after all, not in a tearing hurry to widely open the gates of membership; that Brazil, in particular, strongly favoured a restrictive approach; and, that Russia reportedly preferred expansion “but without any huge enthusiasm.”[14] As a result, gradualism and caution may be adopted as the way forward so that existing inner cohesion and geographical balance are not disturbed.

What the summit decides on this issue will be known on 24 August 2023. It is likely to announce the agreed criteria for new membership, which paves the way for the entry of a small number of new countires from Latin America and Africa. Those chosen from Asia would especially require the concurrence of all three Asian powers – China, Russia and India. Another point of agreement could be that new entrants are not given full membership at the outset. They may first be ‘socialised’ into the BRICS philosophy and political culture as ‘dialogue partners’. A few years later, they may be allowed to join the forum as members. In other words, the SCO model may be followed by BRICS as far as expansion is concerned. A South African scholar observed that the expansion was “ultimately unavoidable” but its value lay in its “deep symbolism, complementarity and agency.”[15]

The G20 summit, to be hosted by India in September 2023, may figure prominently in discussions at Johannesburg. BRICS has been a steady and strong supporter of devising global solutions through the instrumentality of G20. However, during the Indian presidency, it has been extremely difficult to produce the consensus documents at preparatory Ministerial meetings, mainly due to the insistence by Russia and China to exclude the two paragraphs on the Ukraine conflict, which they had accepted at the G20 Bali summit in November 2022. On the other hand, the other three BRICS members have had no difficulty in agreeing to the said paras. Thus, the split in BRICS ranks on this score is complete. Johannesburg will almost be the last opportunity to craft an agreed formula that creates a pathway for a consensus-based Delhi Declaration of G20, a fortnight later.

Ukraine per se and the conflict’s adverse effects on the economies of the Global South will receive pointed attention in Johannesburg. The African Leaders’ Peace Initiative, which took South African President Cyril Ramaphosa and others to Moscow and Kyiv in June 2023 and its outcome will no doubt be discussed. But it will not be easy to devise unanimous formulation on Ukraine, given the internal divergences. It is noteworthy that the 14^th BRICS summit adopted a fairly general formulation.[16]

The New Development Bank (NDB), gradually emerging as a success of BRICS, may come under the Leaders’ lens. The grouping is proud of the NDB’s record, but the latter is thinly capitalized at $100 billion and is known to be facing financial constraints. This is important to correct, as BRICS leaders eye with concern the burden of rising expectations from a large number of developing countries that need funds for development. The bank, therefore, needs to expand its capital base.

A common BRICS currency has received intense media attention, in the buildup to the Johannesburg summit. It may almost be viewed as a media creation, reinforced by some remarks made by Brazilian and Russian officials. A common currency such as the Euro is the end product of a high level of financial integration attained by the European Union (EU) over a long period. BRICS is nowhere near that kind of achievement.  Anil Sooklal, South African sherpa, observed, “There’s never been talk of a BRICS currency, it is not on the agenda.”[17] In June 2023, India’s External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar stated that currencies would remain “very much a national issue for a long time to come.”[18] What BRICS officials have been striving is to create a system for settling trade transactions in their national currencies, probably in separate bilateral formats. Further, efforts to encourage the ‘BRICS Interbank Cooperation Mechanism’ will continue to play an important role in facilitating economic and trade cooperation. Some progress can be expected, but it is clear that the enthusiasm of the Russians, Chinese and Brazilians to move towards de-dollarization is neither shared by the other members nor do objective conditions exist for a common BRICS currency at present.  “Pressure from Russia, looking to escape sanctions, and perhaps China looking for a larger global role, not to mention Brazil’s Lula, could drive a push for a BRICS currency,” noted Peter Fabricius, a consultant with Institute for Security Studies Africa. He added, “But it’s too soon to put the greenback on the endangered list.”[19]

Among other issues, deliberations at Johannesburg may push for positive movement on several ideas that figured in the BRICS’ Beijing Declaration of June 2022 such as the participation of Emerging Markets and Developing Countries (EMDCs) in the international economic decision-making and norm-setting processes; support for the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and Africa’s efforts towards integration through the development of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA); there may also be renewed focus on the grouping’s endeavours to extend cooperation to other EMDCs through the BRICS Outreach and BRICS Plus Cooperation. A deep discussion on the post-coup situation in Niger and its international ramifications, as well as optimal support for the AU’s likely admission into G20 are also expected.

The matter of participation in the 15^th summit is another interesting issue to watch. With President Putin’s physical participation ruled out, some uncertainty prevailed about whether the other three leaders (Xi Jinping, Modi and Lula) would personally join President Ramaphosa in a summit in which South Africa has invested considerable political capital by inviting 60 leaders, including 49 leaders of African states and 11 heads of multilateral groupings. The latest reports confirm that the other three BRICS leaders will participate in the summit in person. The 15^th summit, therefore, promises to witness one of the largest gatherings of African and international leaders in South Africa. It is worth remembering that the last three summits – Beijing (2022), New Delhi (2021) and Moscow (2020) – were all held in virtual format.

India’s policy

As a co-founder of and a steady player in BRICS, India has consistently tried to make it more effective and consequential. From Prime Minister Manmohan Singh’s government to Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s second mandate, continuity has been ensured on this score. BRICS has been viewed as a potent instrument to secure diversity and multipolarity in global politics. As S. Jaishankar, the external affairs minister, aptly put it, “Counter-dominance and principled commitment to multipolarity in all forms – political and economic, academic and institutional, social and cultural – is written into the DNA of BRICS.” He added, “BRICS is a statement of global rebalancing that underlines its essential diversity and pluralism.”[20]

The last time India served as the president of BRICS was in 2021. Then, it laid special emphasis on four goals: reform of the multilateral system; counter-terrorism cooperation; technological and digital solutions for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); and enhancing People-to-People exchanges. These goals have been achieved only in part but India has been a full party to all decisions taken by the previous summits, including those on the grouping’s institutional development. At the opening session of the 2021 summit, PM Modi observed that BRICS was “an influential voice for emerging economies,” noted that it has many achievements to its credit in the past 15 years, and added, “We need to ensure that BRICS is more productive in the next 15 years.”[21]

There are, of course, those who judge the BRICS negatively particularly against the backdrop of strained India-China relations since 2020 and India’s growing cooperation with the US and France in 2023. Some academics openly call the membership of BRICS a liability for India. This is not the case. Viewing the grouping in positive terms, New Delhi considers BRICS a guarantee for an independent foreign policy and strategic autonomy, a means to ensure multipolarity and a valuable device through which its leadership role in the Global South can be buttressed. Above all, groupings such as G20, BRICS and SCO give opportunities to members to communicate and cooperate with each other even when their bilateral relations face tensions – as in the case of India-China ties at present.

Conclusion

BRICS will continue to be a significant pillar of the post-Cold War architecture for global governance. The polarising geopolitics of the present decade will, however, act as a serious constraint. So will the lack of optimal internal coherence and mutual trust. As these challenges are addressed, the grouping may have a larger role to play. Optimists have hailed 2023 as the year of ‘new opportunities’ for the Global South and ‘the most impactful year’ in the geopolitical landscape. The Johannesburg summit will provide some pointers for the future directions of BRICS, and of the world that surrounds it.

Author Brief Bio: Ambassador Rajiv Bhatia is Distinguished Fellow, Foreign Studies Programme at Gateway House. He is a member of CII’s International Advisory Council, Trade Policy Council and Africa Committee. He is the Chair of FICCI’s Task Force on Blue Economy, and served as Chair of Core Group of Experts on BIMSTEC. He is a founding member of the Kalinga International Foundation and a member of the governing council of Asian Confluence.  As Director General of the Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA) from 2012-15, he played a key role in strengthening India’s Track-II research and outreach activities. During a 37-year innings in the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), he served as Ambassador to Myanmar and Mexico and as High Commissioner to Kenya, South Africa and Lesotho. He dealt with a part of South Asia, while posted as Joint Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs. 

 

References:

[1] Statista, World Economic Forum, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/09/india-uk-fifth-largest-economy-world

[2] Given the arrest warrant issued in March 2023  by the International Criminal Court (ICC) against President Vladimir Putin for alleged responsibility for war crimes in Ukraine, the Russian and South African governments have mutually agreed that the Russian president would attend the summit digitally. For details, see ‘Situation in Ukraine: ICC judges issue arrest warrants against Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Maria Alekseyevna Lvova-Belova’, International Criminal Court, 17 March 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-ukraine-icc-judges-issue-arrest-warrants-against-vladimir-vladimirovich-putin-and

[3]‘Joint Statement of the BRIC Countries’ Leaders’, Yekaterinburg, Russia, June 16, 2009. BRICS Information Centre, University of Toronto, http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/090616-leaders.html

[4] Ibid.

[5] John Kirton, ‘The Evolving BRICS’, BRICS Information Centre, University of Toronto, http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/biblio/kirton-evolving-brics-230705.html

[6] ‘BRICS Leaders Xiamen Declaration’, September 4, 2017, Xiamen, China, BRICS Information Centre, University of Toronto, http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/170904-xiamen.html

[7] ‘XIV BRICS Summit Beijing Declaration, June 23, 2022, para 7,  BRICS Information Centre, University of Toronto.  The text of the formulation in question, repeated at the conclusion of every summit reads, “China and Russia reiterated the importance they attach to the status and role of Brazil, India and South Africa in international affairs and supported their aspiration to play a greater role in the UN” http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/220623-declaration.html

[8] ‘GDP by Country’, https://www.worldometers.info/gdp/gdp-by-country/

[9] ‘Meeting of National Security Advisor with his Chinese counterpart on the sidelines of the BRICS NSAs’ Meeting July 25, 2023, Ministry of External Affairs.  On the sidelines of the BRICS NSAs’ meeting in Johannesburg on 24 July 2023, National Security Adviser Ajit Doval conveyed to Wang Yi, his Chinese counterpart that the prevailing situation in the border region “had eroded strategic trust and the public and political facets of the India-China relationship.” He added that peace and tranquility in the border areas was essential for normal bilateral relations. The Chinese side reiterated its known position on this matter. All that the two dignitaries could agree was that “India-China bilateral relationship is significant not only for the two countries but also for the region and the world.” https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl%2F36876%2FMeeting_of_National_Security_Advisor_with_his_Chinese_counterpart_on_the_sidelines_of_the_BRICS_NSAs_Meeting=null&s=03

[10] For a preview, it is worth perusing the joint statement of foreign ministers issued in June 2023.  https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1873948/?TSPD_101_R0=08765fb817ab20004a6c4f0a5602ad93f1f7072e4e227d883d8ed94f4c2f1288720e1240d935b18c085af9b5071430005670bb41a2280b69b655f922f955544a4d971bf533c8e686d4928dba99c00af8e633db7fc5d8139c489c3e9f2adc5c00#:~:text=The%20Ministers%20welcomed%20the%20Friends,Development%2C%20and%20Inclusive%20Multilateralism

[11] ‘XIV BRICS Summit Beijing Declaration’. June 23, 2022, para 73, BRICS Information Centre, University of Toronto, http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/220623-declaration.html

[12] Lindsay  Dentlinger, ‘BRICS Sherpas Confident They Have Suitable Criteria For Admitting New Members’, Eyewitness News, 7 July 2023. https://ewn.co.za/2023/07/07/brics-sherpas-confident-they-have-suitable-criteria-for-admitting-new-members

[13] Rajiv Bhatia, ‘The paradox of BRICS’, Gateway House, 25 May 2023, https://www.gatewayhouse.in/the-paradox-of-brics/

[14] ‘China’s bid to enlarge BRICS membership hits roadblocks’, Bloomberg, 28 July 2023. https://www.livemint.com/news/world/chinas-bid-to-enlarge-brics-membership-hits-roadblocks-11690522625404.html

[15] Ronak Gopaldas, ‘More BRICS in the wall?’  Institute for Security Studies, 8 August 2022, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/more-brics-in-the-wall

[16] ‘XIV BRICS Summit Beijing Declaration’, June 23, 2022, para 22, BRICS Information Centre, University of Toronto, It stated, “We have discussed the situation in Ukraine and recall our national positions as expressed at the appropriate fora, namely the UNSC and UNGA. We support talks between Russia and Ukraine.” It also reflects their “concerns” over the humanitarian situation. http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/220623-declaration.html

[17] Rachel Savage and Carien du Plessis, ‘BRICS currency not on August summit agenda, South African official says’, Reuters, 20 July 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/brics-currency-not-august-summit-agenda-south-african-official-2023-07-20/

[18] Ibid.

[19] Peter Fabricius, ‘The mighty dollar is rhetorically endangered but safe, for now,’, Institute for Security Studies, 24 July 2023, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/the-mighty-dollar-is-rhetorically-endangered-but-safe-for-now

[20] ‘Dr. S. Jaishankar’s Inaugural Address at BRICS Academic Forum 2021’, ORF, 4 August 2021, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/jaishankar-inaugural-address-brics-academic-forum-2021/

[21] ‘PM Modi chairs 13^th BRICS summit’, Times of India, 9 September 2021.