Abstract
India’s climate journey reflects a balance between development and sustainability. Having made significant progress in renewable energy, emission intensity reduction, and global alliances like ISA, CDRI, GBA, LeadIT, and IBCA, India is emerging as a key climate leader. Despite challenges such as coal dependence, financing gaps, and rising energy demand, it continues to promote equitable climate action. Hosting COP33 in 2028 offers India a chance to amplify Global South voices and champion inclusive, just, and sustainable growth.
Prologue
2022 marks a significant milestone in India’s journey as the country completed 75 years of independence, and Prime Minister Narendra Modi pledged to transform India into a developed nation by 2047[1]. Given the number of issues India had to deal with and the new mechanisms and processes it had to establish from scratch, many have considered the success of Indian democracy nothing short of a miracle. India continues to develop and lift people out of poverty, year by year, over the last 78 years. 2022 is also essential for another reason; in 2015, India set an ambitious target of deploying 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022. With the nuts and bolts of the green transition still developing, the country made an ambitious call, which, due to the active role played by all stakeholders, provided a spurt for renewable energy growth in the country. Although the country fell short of this target, implementing it showed promising progress towards a clean energy transition by deploying 119 GW of renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro).[2] The journey set out the foundation and path for the next set of efforts on climate action and energy transition.
India’s Progress on Climate Action
India is navigating a delicate path between development imperatives and climate responsibility, and in recent years, the country has registered both promising gains and persistent challenges. As of the latest assessments, India’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions stand at approximately 4,195 Mt CO₂-equivalent, representing ~7.6 % of global emissions.[3] While India remains among the top emitters globally, its per capita emissions are relatively low (~1.85 t CO₂e/year) compared to global averages.[4] Historically, since 1850, India’s cumulative emissions amount to ~169,900 Mt CO₂e, contributing ~4.6 % of global historical warming.[5]
In 2023, India updated its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the UNFCCC framework, pledging to reduce the emissions intensity of GDP by 45% from 2005 levels by 2030 and aiming to have 50% of cumulative installed power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.[6] The government also envisions reaching net-zero emissions by 2070, and emphasises sustainable lifestyles via initiatives such as Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for the Environment).[7]
On the mitigation front, India has driven rapid growth in renewable energy capacity. By October 2025, total installed renewables (solar, wind, hydro, etc.) had reached ~242 GW, as India marches toward its 2030 target of 500 GW non-fossil capacity.[8] As of 2023, India’s renewable share (including large hydro) was estimated at ~49 % of total generation capacity, with solar (~123 GW), wind (~52 GW), large hydro (~50 GW), and bioenergy (~12 GW) constituting the mix.[9] Yet when it comes to actual electricity generation, renewable energy (including large hydro) contributes only ~22 % of total generation, revealing the persistent dominance of coal in dispatch.[10] Recent capacity addition trends are robust. In fiscal year 2024–25 alone, India added 29.52 GW of renewable capacity (solar leading at ~24 GW), pushing the cumulative solar capacity past 100 GW.[11] In the first half of FY 26 (April to September 2025), India achieved a record ~25 GW of renewable additions, with solar contributing ~21.7 GW and wind ~3.09 GW.[12] These additions have enabled India to attain 50 % of its installed power capacity from non-fossil sources, five years ahead of its original 2030 timeline.[13]
The effect of these changes is visible in emission trends. India’s energy-related CO₂ emissions rose sharply by 5.3 % in 2024, the highest among major economies, fueled by economic growth and increasing electricity demand.[14] However, in the first half of 2025, India’s power sector CO₂ emissions declined ~1 % year-on-year, thanks to record clean energy additions, lower fossil generation, and favourable weather conditions.[15] Analysts suggest this may mark a turning point, indicating that emissions in the power sector could peak before 2030 if the trend continues.[16] Moreover, India’s climate and sectoral policies are beginning to show measurable savings: between 2015 and 2020, policies across power, transport, and residential sectors reportedly avoided ~440 Mt CO₂ emissions.[17]
According to India’s Fourth Biennial Update Report (BUR-4) to the UNFCCC, submitted on 30 December 2024, India reduced the emission intensity of its GDP by 33% between 2005 and 2019, which is a significant achievement. This reduction is already more than two-thirds of India’s 2030 target under its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which aims for a 45% reduction from 2005 levels[18]. The energy sector remains the most significant contributor to GHG emissions, but improvements in energy efficiency, renewable energy deployment, and policy interventions have contributed to the decline in emission intensity. India reported an increase in forest and tree cover, contributing to carbon sequestration and supporting its climate goals.
In summary, India is advancing on multiple fronts: renewables are scaling rapidly, emissions pathways show signs of flattening in the power sector, and climate policies are generating tangible savings. Yet the path ahead is steep — success will depend on swiftly converting capacity gains into dispatchable clean power, restructuring coal reliance, mobilising finance at scale, and mainstreaming decarbonization across all sectors.
Climate Cooperation and International Coalitions
In recent years, India has spearheaded or co-hosted several international coalitions targeting climate mitigation, infrastructure resilience, industrial decarbonization, sustainable energy, and biodiversity conservation. These alliances reflect India’s ambition to play a leadership role in global climate diplomacy while also aligning with national priorities. Among the most prominent functional ones are the International Solar Alliance (ISA), Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA), Leadership Group for Industry Transition (LeadIT), and the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA).
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) stands as the most mature of these alliances. Launched in November 2015 by India and France at the COP21 summit, ISA was conceived to bring together “sunshine countries” in a collective pursuit of scaling solar energy deployment, mobilising finance, technology aggregation, capacity building, and lowering costs of solar power [19]. Over time, its membership has expanded: more than 100 countries have signed the ISA Framework Agreement, with 90+ having ratified it as full members.[20] The ISA has operationalised its Global Solar Facility (GSF) pilot projects and continues to work on de-risking solar investments, particularly in the Global South.[21]
Complementing mitigation efforts with resilience goals, the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) was launched in September 2019 by India at the UN Climate Action Summit. The aim is to foster infrastructure systems that can withstand climate and disaster risks, thereby reducing economic losses and promoting sustainable development outcomes. As of now, CDRI comprises around 60 members (50 countries and 10 institutional members) and supports more than 180 projects, with a secretariat based in New Delhi. Its work includes technical standards, risk mapping, capacity building, policy dialogue, and project support in member countries.
On the clean energy front, the Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA) was launched in September 2023 on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in New Delhi, championed by India along with nations such as the United States, Brazil, Italy, Argentina, and others.[22] GBA’s objective is to coordinate international efforts to scale sustainable biofuels, facilitate trade, assist national biofuel programs, and align standards and policies.[23] As of mid-2025, new countries like Namibia have joined the alliance, illustrating its expanding reach in the Global South.[24]
To promote decarbonisation of heavy industry, the Leadership Group for Industry Transition (LeadIT) was co-launched by India and Sweden in 2019 at the UN Secretary-General’s Climate Action Summit. The alliance unites governments, industry leaders, and financiers to accelerate pathways for low-carbon heavy industries, especially steel, cement, and chemicals. In December 2023 at COP28, LeadIT entered a new phase—LeadIT 2.0—launching the India-Sweden Industry Transition Platform and enhancing partnerships and policy frameworks for industrial transition. India and Sweden serve as co-chairs, hosting annual summits and expanding global coordination for industry decarbonisation.
In the domain of biodiversity and conservation, India launched the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) in April 2023 during the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger, with the vision to coordinate global conservation efforts across seven “big cat” species: tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, and puma.[25] The Cabinet approved the establishment of IBCA in March 2024. In April 2025, India and the IBCA signed a Headquarters Agreement that locates its secretariat in India and provides legal and institutional support.[26] As of 2025, IBCA has become an intergovernmental organisation, with over 12 countries formally joining. A first assembly was held in New Delhi, during which leadership structures, work plans, and rules of procedure were adopted.[27] The IBCA also contributes to climate adaptation, ecosystem resilience, and biodiversity goals by safeguarding habitat integrity, reducing wildlife trade, and promoting collaborative conservation.[28]
Together, these alliances represent a multi-pronged approach by India: leveraging solar power and biofuels for mitigation; embedding resilience in infrastructure; decarbonising industrial sectors; and protecting biodiversity and ecosystems. While each operates in a distinct domain, there is scope for synergy among them—for example, green infrastructure investments that integrate solar and resilience, or industrial decarbonization that supports sustainable biofuel markets. The real test now lies in translating alliance frameworks and diplomatic momentum into impactful projects on the ground across member countries, ensuring sustained funding, institutional capacity and cross-sectoral integration.
Challenges towards climate action, biodiversity and conservation
India’s climate transition is at a critical juncture — it has achieved substantial momentum in renewable energy and global climate alliances, but structural constraints continue to anchor its carbon trajectory. India has positioned itself as a global leader in climate diplomacy — committing to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% from 2005 levels by 2030, achieving its target of 50% of installed electricity capacity from non-fossil sources well ahead of schedule, and aiming to reach net-zero by 2070.[29] Yet, translating these commitments into sustained emission reductions remains a challenging task due to the following reasons:
- Dependence on Coal and Fossil Fuels
The single most significant challenge to India’s decarbonization lies in its continued dependence on coal. Coal accounts for nearly 73% of India’s electricity generation and around 44% of total primary energy supply.[30] Although the share of renewables in installed capacity has surpassed 49%, the actual generation share of clean power remains just ~22% due to intermittency and baseload limitations[31], reflecting a continuing reliance on coal for energy security and industrial growth.[32] The entrenched role of coal in employment, regional economies (especially in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha), and power sector finance makes a “just transition” complex. Closing or repurposing coal plants without robust social protection frameworks risks political and social backlash.
- Rising Energy Demand and Developmental Pressures
India’s economy is growing rapidly, with energy demand projected to double between 2020 and 2040.[33] Industrialisation, urbanisation, and increasing per capita income have led to surging demand for electricity, steel, cement, transport fuels, and air conditioning — all highly carbon-intensive sectors. The residential cooling sector alone saw a 292% increase in emissions from 2000 to 2022.[34] Unlike mature economies, India must expand quality energy access and industrial capacity while decarbonising — a dual challenge that places immense strain on public finances and technological readiness.
- Financing and Investment Gaps
India’s transition requires an estimated USD 10 trillion between 2020 and 2070 to achieve net-zero emissions. More immediately, Deloitte (2024) estimates India will need USD 1.5 trillion by 2030 for investments in renewable energy, electric mobility, hydrogen, and carbon capture.[35] However, climate finance flows into India are less than one-tenth of the required level — around USD 44 billion annually versus the needed USD 260 billion.[36] Barriers include limited concessional finance, currency risks for foreign investors, and the absence of a robust domestic carbon market.
- Technological and Infrastructure Constraints
India’s transition to clean energy depends on large-scale deployment of technologies such as battery storage, green hydrogen, smart grids, and carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) — most of which are either expensive or at nascent stages. Grid integration remains a major bottleneck: the addition of transmission capacity is lagging behind renewable growth, leading to the curtailment of solar and wind power in some states.[37] Moreover, manufacturing localisation for solar modules, wind turbines, and EV batteries remains limited despite production-linked incentive (PLI) schemes. India imported over USD 12 billion worth of solar cells and modules in FY2024, raising concerns about technological dependence.[38]
- Industrial and Transport Sector Emissions
The industrial sector accounts for approximately 28% of India’s total GHG emissions, with steel and cement alone contributing nearly half of the industrial CO₂.[39] Decarbonising these sectors is challenging due to process emissions, high energy use, and a lack of commercially available low-carbon alternatives. Similarly, transport emissions are increasing rapidly: vehicle ownership is expected to triple by 2040, and the share of electric vehicles remains below 5%.[40] Despite government programs such as FAME-II and ethanol blending targets, infrastructure and affordability barriers persist.
- Agricultural and Land-Use Emissions
Agriculture contributes around 18% of India’s GHG emissions, mainly from methane (paddy cultivation, livestock) and nitrous oxide (fertiliser use).[41] Unlike energy, these emissions are diffuse and harder to mitigate. Electrification of irrigation, improved fertiliser efficiency, and sustainable livestock practices remain underfunded. In parallel, forest carbon sinks are under stress due to land-use change, deforestation, and climate-driven productivity declines. Recent studies show a 6.2% reduction in forest productivity despite greening trends.[42]
- Institutional and Governance Challenges
While India has a robust policy framework — including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), State Action Plans (SAPCCs), and sectoral missions — coordination, data transparency, and implementation capacity remain weak. Climate budgeting and adaptation planning vary significantly across states. Moreover, local governments often lack the technical expertise to integrate climate considerations into urban and infrastructure planning.[43]
- Adaptation and Climate Resilience Gaps
India is one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable countries. It faces frequent heatwaves, floods, glacial melt, and erratic monsoons, all of which are intensifying due to global warming. The economic losses from climate disasters are estimated at USD 87 billion annually, disproportionately affecting poor and coastal communities.[44] While adaptation initiatives like the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and city-level Climate Action Plans (e.g., Mumbai, Surat) are essential, overall adaptation finance remains below 15% of total climate spending.[45]
COP 33 – an opportunity for India to amplify emerging economies’ voice, exchange learnings and showcase India’s progress
India has shown willingness to host COP 33 in 2028, which would be an incredible opportunity to showcase India’s progress, exchange learnings and act as a voice of emerging economies on various issues. Following India’s curve, countries around the world need to solve multiple developmental problems and expand their economies, while ensuring no harm to their environment and ecology. While there are still existing challenges and further scope for improvements in many areas, India has made significant strides on the climate front while simultaneously expanding as an economy and ensuring the development of the vulnerable and low-income groups. For example, on the energy front, this includes a massive expansion of the grid and ensuring almost universal access to electricity to households through the Saubhagya scheme.[46] Through Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), the country has transformed millions of households by providing deposit-free LPG connections to adult women from poor households. This initiative promotes health through better air quality, environmental sustainability, and women’s empowerment by replacing cooking fuels like firewood and cow-dung cakes.[47]
On the renewable energy end, India has made exponential progress, and its solar power sector has witnessed an extraordinary 3450% increase in capacity over the past decade, rising from 2.82 GW in 2014 to 100 GW in 2025.[48] Recently, a solar plus storage project in Morena, Madhya Pradesh, got a record-breaking tariff of ₹2.70/kWh (around US¢3). This was the first time in India that a tariff below ₹3/kWh has been achieved for a firm dispatchable renewable energy (FDRE) project. Through PM Suryaghar Yojana, India has added 6 GW of rooftop capacity across 2 million households in just 1.5 years. Given the scale and similar development context, India can share a lot on policy and regulatory design, bidding and procurement process, etc., with other emerging economies.
India also must utilise its prospective COP presidency to champion equitable climate finance by reinforcing the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC), ensuring that Global South countries receive sufficient resources for adaptation and mitigation. As a bridge between developed and developing nations, India can leverage its leadership in alliances like the International Solar Alliance, CDRI, and Global Biofuels Alliance to advocate for enhanced concessional finance, technology transfer, and debt relief mechanisms. By campaigning for fair access to green capital and showcasing scalable low-cost climate solutions, India can strengthen South-South cooperation and help align global financing architecture with the developmental needs of emerging economies.
It will be important for India to emphasise that development itself is the first line of defence against climate calamities and a key tool for resilience and adaptation for vulnerable communities, especially for countries currently at the lower end of the development spectrum. India can utilise the COP opportunity to voice the global south’s perspective on climate action to ensure that international efforts are fair – through adequate flow of finance from developed to developing countries, giving proper importance to resilience and adaptation in climate discussions, and ensuring no one is left behind in this transition.
Author Brief Bio: Anurag Mishra is a public policy professional with over twelve years of experience developing and implementing energy and climate change initiatives across philanthropies, governments, think-tanks and the private sector. Some of his professional accolades include drafting India’s Integrated National Energy Policy, steering a multi-think coalition that led to the launch of India’s Critical Mineral Mission and steering a grassroots initiative focused on power sector reforms
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[9] Ibid
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[16] Ibid.
[17] Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW). “India’s Current Climate Policies Significant, Will Reduce 4 Billion Tonnes of CO2.” Council on Energy, Environment and Water, https://www.ceew.in/press-releases/india%E2%80%99s-current-climate-policies-significant-will-reduce-4-billion-tonnes-co2
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