Introduction

Hinduism is often regarded as the oldest living civilisation in the world and can be traced back approximately 4,000 years. We have examined numerous texts regarding Buddhism’s influence across many regions outside India, yet there is less evidence of Hinduism’s impact globally. Indian culture and Hinduism appear to be closely intertwined in various ancient texts, and this paper focuses explicitly on the influence of Hinduism in Champa. This region encompasses central and southern Vietnam. Champa was a long, narrow strip of territory, bordered by mountains to the west and the sea to the east and intersected by countless hills. The influence of Hinduism on the land of Champa also provides profound insight into the integration of Hindu civilisation within a foreign context.

As mentioned in India’s Contribution to World Thought and Culture^[1], the unifying aspect of Indian culture extended beyond the mainland of the Indian subcontinent, reaching the Southeast Asian nations and thereby enhancing the cultural bond. References to Southeast Asia in Indian literature can be traced back to the last centuries B.C. and the early centuries C.E. in texts such as the Arthasastra, the Maha Niddesa, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Dharmasastras, as well as in various Puranas and Jataka tales.^[2] Sanskrit inscriptions evidence the establishment of Indian kingdoms in Southeast Asia found at Champa (second to third century C.E.), the Kutei inscriptions of Mulavarman from East Borneo (fifth century C.E.), and the Taruma inscriptions from West Java.

The Chinese records mention Kiu-liens, a tribe from beyond the frontier of Chinese territories that attacked their southernmost districts, destroyed the Chinese forts, and ravaged the whole country in the year 137 CE.^[3] These individuals, possessing great military skill and organisation, ultimately formed the kingdom of Champa from the conquered territory of the Chinese empire^[4] and left epigraphic records in Sanskrit.

A.P. Patnaik^[5] says that these Kiu-liens were quite likely a branch of the Kula people of Burma, whom G.E. Gerini has described as people from Kalinga. According to Gerini,^[6] the term Kula was used in Burma to designate Western foreigners in general and the people from south India in particular. H.B. Sarkar,^[7] a scholar on the history of Southeast Asia, has also identified the Kula people of Burma with the Kalinga people. Thus, it was possible that sometime in the first century CE or even before, the Kula people, also known as Kiu-liens, migrated in considerable numbers from Kalinga to Burma and other lower regions of Indo-China via land or sea. This was one of the theories on the beginnings of the Champa kingdom.

The other mentioned in the Chinese chronicles, around 192 C.E., is a kingdom established in the region of the present city of Hue in Vietnam, which the Chinese named Linyi but which Sanskrit literature referred to as Champa. Champa derived its name from the term Chams, yet it lacked epigraphical proof until the beginning of the seventh century; however, earlier historical records do mention the term ‘kingdom of Chams.’ The Cham people were believed to be of Austronesian origin, belonging to an Indonesian linguistic group, and they were ethnically and culturally distinct from the Viets in the north and the Khmers in the west. Wen-Hsien T’ung-k’ao, a Chinese work by the author Ma Tuan-lin, also provides a clear picture of Cham society in the second half of the fourth century CE when it had already adopted a significant measure of Indian culture traditions.^[8]

 

Historical Context: The Initial Introduction of Hinduism

Communication between any two regions in ancient times was established through trade exchanges, as seen in the relationship between India and Southeast Asia. Archaeological evidence indicates that trade developed in these regions around the 2nd century C.E. The discovery of items such as shouldered adzes, knobbed ware, and glass beads from various sites in India and modern Vietnam (ancient Champa) points to interactions between the two regions in prehistoric times.^[9] The oldest cultural evidence in Champa is of a Buddha statue in Amaravati style^[10] in Dong Duong in the Quang Nam province of Vietnam.^[11]

The nature of the cultural elements that were transmitted from India to Southeast Asia has been enumerated into four points by Prof D.G.E. Hall^[12]: (1) a conception of royalty characterised by Hinduism and Buddhism, (2) literary expression through Sanskrit (3) mythological expressions from Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas that were reflected in the traditional genealogies of the royal families of the region (4) the observance of Dharmasastras or the ‘Laws of Manu’, incorporated in the region’s religious texts. The author also explained the spread of Hinduism; when states came to be set up after the Indian pattern, the gods from many sites came to be united under one supreme god, Siva^[13], and the king was named Deva-raja (god-king, as people used to address) which in turn influenced the local society.^[14] The influence of Hinduism in Southeast Asia revolved around Siva and Visnu, at least during the initial period.^[15]

Siva was regarded as the ‘titular deity’ of the kingdom of Champa. Saivism was the more influential of the Brahmanical sects, thus profoundly influencing the entire course of religious development compared to Buddhism and Vaisnavism. Brahmanism adhered to an Indianised form of Hinduism that thrived since the adoption of Hindu culture in the ancient era of Champa. In ancient times, vast temple complexes were constructed, primarily dedicated to Siva. These temple structures honoured Siva as the founder and protector of the Champa dynasty, and extravagant arrangements, fueled by the wealth and resources of the kingdom, were made for his worship. The most important of these is known as My Son. Unfortunately, the main tower of the My Son complex was destroyed during the Vietnam War in 1969.

 

Spread of Hinduism: The Role of Trade and Cultural Exchange

Based on excavations in Thailand, it has been argued that India’s maritime contact with Southeast Asia dates back to the 4th century B.C.^[16] Contact between India and Southeast Asia likely began earlier, but intensified around the start of the Christian era. One of the primary trade routes linking India and China passed through the coast of Champa, which became a vital hub for Indian merchants engaged in maritime trade in the Southeast Asian region. Hinduism was introduced to Champa through trade with the Indian subcontinent. As trade flourished, Indian merchants sought spices and gold, bringing with them Buddhist monks and Brahmans of Hinduism, who played a crucial role in transmitting Indian religious and cultural practices, including Hinduism, Sanskrit, and temple architecture. Thus, the Buddhist-Hindu culture established in Champa emerged from the commercial relations between Vietnam and India.

Due to their coastal location, the Chams favoured a seafaring culture, with trade primarily focused on spices and silk. From the second to the sixth century CE, OcEo was a significant and prosperous harbour city for trade, serving as an ‘entrepot’ for voyagers. Excavations at OcEo port have unearthed beads, seals with Sanskrit inscriptions, gold medallions, and rare pieces of sculpture, providing evidence that the area was a vital hub for international trade between the Malay Peninsula and other regions of the world.^[17]

We can also find a reference to the maritime contact between Kalinga and Champa in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra^[18], one of the sacred Jain texts. It highlights the significance of Pithunda, a port in the Kalinga region, utilised by both pilgrims and traders from Champa since the time of Mahavira, and the port town also became a centre of Jain religion. The Pithunda port is mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, located in the Udaygiri caves in present-day Odisha. Additionally, the Uttaradhyayana Sutra refers to a merchant from Champa named Palita, who came to Pithunda port for trade, settled there, and married a Kalingan merchant’s daughter.^[19] While returning to Champa, Palita’s wife gave birth to a boy on the ship during the voyage^[20], and the boy was named Samudrapala.

In addition to commercial relationships, strong cultural ties developed between the people of Vietnam and India, reflected in their art, architecture, literature, and social life. The socio-cultural and political centres were established at Vijaya (Binh Dinh), Kauthara (Nha Trang), Panduranga (Phan Rang), Indrapura (Dong Duong), and Amaravati (Quang Nam), all of which were significantly influenced by elements of Hinduism.

 

Architectural and Artistic Influences

The historical archaeological sites of Tra Kieu, My Son, Dong Duong, and Po Nagar provide significant evidence of the holy land of Champa. The Cham kingdom was divided into several natural provinces based on the coastal plains. Artistic developments began around the seventh century, primarily at My Son and Tra Kieu. The temple architecture in Champa, which still exists today, began to take shape around the eighth and ninth centuries, characterised by a syncretic blend of outside influences and artistic originality. However, the earlier architectural remains have disappeared over time.

The regions that exhibited archaeological evidence include (1) Quang Nam, specifically the Thu Bon Valley, which encompasses the sites of My Son, Tra Kieu, and Dong Duong; (2) the area of Nha Trang featuring the Po Nagar complex; and (3) the region of Phan Rang.^[21] These were the centres of power on the territory of Champa, extending from the central to southern regions of present-day Vietnam. In addition to vast architectural complexes such as in Dong Duong, the art of the Chams included small, freestanding sculptures such as the sculpture of Uma, an elegant Goddess and wife of Siva. The earlier Cham architecture at My Son was similar to towers and arcades, with carved stone altar tables supporting images. In Binh Dinh, there are silver towers with pointed horseshoe chaitya arches. Later on, Indian influence declined, and huge, crude figures were executed in place of fine art.^[22]

Champa’s earliest inscriptions, found in the Quang Nam and Phu Yen regions of Vietnam, have been associated with King Bhadravarman. The figures, similar to those of Gupta-Vakataka and Pallava-Chalukya sculptures in Champa, suggest the region’s affinities to the mainland and the persistence of Indian culture in the region.

Most Indian-style monuments belong to the reign of Prakasa-Dharma, who adopted the regnal title of Vikrantavarman after his coronation. Several of these monuments are dedicated to Visnu, whose worship appeared for the first time in Champa during his reign. Around the eighth century, more emphasis was placed on Saivism, and linga worship became increasingly significant. There are many examples of Mukhalinga, a stone covered with metal and decorated with one or more human faces, symbolising the king’s identification with Siva.^[23] This particular depiction is an interesting example of ‘symbiosis’ where the traditional and important cults were united to broaden the basis of the religion of the state.

There also has been contact established between Kalinga and Champa on archaeological lines. The finding of bar celts from the Sankarjang excavation site in the Angul region of Odisha demonstrated that the state’s earliest musical instruments were similar to those found in Vietnam.^[24] Another significant fact is about the srivatsa motif of the Hathigumpha Inscription of emperor Kharavela which later became common in the coins of OcEo port from Vietnam to Myanmar (earlier named Arakan).^[25]

Similar lines can also be drawn between Bhubaneswar and My Son, as both places are identified as temple cities due to the construction of numerous Hindu temples. Like the early Odishan temples, the Cham temples feature a primary shrine at the center and a subsidiary one. The window openings were beautifully designed, reminiscent of the Rajarani temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, with their “baluster-shaped mullions”.^[26] The decorative motifs of the temples in My Son, especially the makara torana (crocodile-shaped archways), depict exquisitely carved makara heads seen in the archways of the Muktesvara temple in Bhubaneswar. Certain Champa monuments also illustrate the dancing form of Siva balancing on the back of the bull, a common occurrence in the temples of Odisha Bengal.^[27]

In essence, all of the temples in Champa belong to a single type. They are often perched at an altitude and constructed of brickwork. Major temples of Champa are arranged on a square terrace with three towers above. The image of God, which usually faces east, is at the centre of the sanctuary. Another structure with a similar design that runs from east to west is the porch. Occasionally, two auxiliary shrines, which could be regarded as later extensions, are constructed in the same north-south orientation as the main sanctuary. Each of these structures is surrounded by a wall, and the only way to enter is via an eastward-facing gate tower. The sanctuary’s interior is a square room. The exterior of the sanctuary consists of a square tower topped with a shikhara.

My son, Don Duong, and Po Nagar are three significant temple groups; the second is Buddhist, while the other two are Shaivite in nature. The Chams incorporated new elements into their designs without fully replicating the Indian prototypes; however, their overall appearance was derived from the fundamental and distinctive features of Indian style. ^[28]

Indravarman II founded a new capital named Indrapura in Quang Nam province and is credited with establishing Buddhism in Champa. Along those lines, the ruins of a monastery have been located in Dong Duong, which is situated southeast of My Son. This is the first evidence of Mahayana Buddhism’s existence in Champa. Indravarman II established the sixth dynasty in Champa’s history. The kings of this lineage were more involved in the country’s religious life than their predecessors. They constructed new sanctuaries and protected and restored religious foundations after desecration. Additionally, they erected inscriptions detailing their donations to temples and monasteries.^[29]

The inscriptions of Bhadravarman were the first documents of the Indian religion. The inscriptions reveal the dominance of the worship of Siva-Uma, and Bhadresvara was represented as the oldest known royal linga in “Farther India”^[30]. The inscriptions of Champa contain references to ritualistic rites and Vedic sacrifices. In Champa, the worship of the Hindu trinity—Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesvara, or Shiva—was widely recognised. The influence of writing, mainly from southern India, has also been carried over to Southeast Asian countries through the transmission of customs.

There also has been a reference to the partially damaged Vo Canh Rock Inscription (on palaeographic grounds from the second or third century CE), found near the village of Vo-Canh in the province of Khanh Hoa and has been regarded as the first epigraph in Champa^[31] which in Sanskrit refers to the first kingdom in Champa by the royal family of Sri Mara, who was considered to be a Kalingan.^[32] According to the Chinese chronicles, King Sri Mara was a Saiva by faith and called himself in the Vo Canh Inscription for having a Kalingan origin. It could be concluded that Sri Mara founded a Hindu dynasty in Champa in the second century CE.^[33] In the latter years of the Eastern Ganga dynasty’s rule in Odisha, in the early mediaeval period, the practice of setting loose an elephant to select the heir in the absence of an heir was also followed in Champa.

Two Cho Dinh Rock Inscriptions were discovered in the village of Nhan Thap, situated in what is now Phu Yen province in Vietnam. The inscriptions featured the names DharmamaharajaBhadravarman and Bhadresvarasvamin. The second name refers to Siva, to whom King Bhadravarman constructed a temple named Bhadresvara, as mentioned in his inscription from My Son.^[34]

Indian epigraphy has significantly contributed to the dissemination and evolution of script, alongside the region’s linguistic development. Inscriptions discovered in Champa primarily utilized two languages: Cham and Sanskrit. The Sanskrit inscriptions demonstrate considerable rhetorical skills, indicating that Indian linguistics was in early use beyond the region India.^[35]The earliest known use of Sanskrit in Champa inscriptions dates to the latter part of the fourth century, just before similar works from Borneo and Java’s Malay Peninsula became available. The first known inscription in the Cham language, based on palaeographic evidence, dates from the fourth century and is from Dong Yen Chau, which is near Tra Kieu.^[36] The early development of the Thu Bon Valley, where My Son is situated, is linked to the first cohesive collection of inscriptions. There are twenty inscriptions, all in Sanskrit, dating from the fifth to the late eighth century, except for two that are in or near My Son.^[37]

As mentioned in R.C. Majumdar’s Champa^[38], out of 130 inscriptions discovered in Champa and published in his volume, about 21 do not refer to any religious sect in particular. Of the rest, 92 refer to Siva and the gods associated with him, three to Visnu, five to Brahma, and seven to Buddha, while two refer to both Siva and Visnu. The two principal regions for these temples in ancient Champa were My Son and Po Nagar.

 

Syncretism and Adaptation of Hinduism

Since Southeast Asians may have had contact with India before the arrival of the Aryans, it is likely that they did not perceive Indian culture as distinct from their own. In mainland Southeast Asia, kingship most likely developed in two ways. The first occurred when an Indian, as in the case of the founding of the kingdom of Funan, married the daughter of a local chief and then proclaimed himself king. The second instance, exemplified by numerous incidents in Indonesia, involved a local chief inviting Indian brahmins to perform rituals for him according to Indian custom. Although other regions of the Indian subcontinent also had an influence, the southern part of the region was primarily responsible for Indian influence. These factors would have been a major catalyst for ingraining and spreading the values of Indian culture within the local community.

The Hinduism practiced in Champa was profoundly influenced by Saivism. As ancient texts reveal, Bhadravarman (also referred to as Bhavavarman in some accounts) was the founder of the first Hindu sanctuary in Champa by erecting a Siva-linga named after himself, Siva-Bhadresvara, which linked the name of the god with his own. It is the earliest royal linga on record in mainland Southeast Asia^[39] and was constructed in the Cirque of My Son, the reference to which is found in the inscriptions. Bhadravarman’s capital was discovered on the eastern side of My Son, at the location of present-day Tra Kieu. The surroundings of this site have yielded stone inscriptions in a script that matches the existing inscriptions.  An intriguing insight mentioned in R.C. Majumdar’s Champa^[40] is that the kings of Champa competed to place images of Siva, as this was considered pious. Furthermore, they identified or associated themselves with the gods by adding their names to the god’s name and occasionally making the god’s image resemble their own

The influence of Saivism in Champa was depicted through Siva-linga worship, which became a very popular cult in the region. The primary emblems included the lingam, Mukhalinga, segmented liṅgam, jaṭāliṅgam, and kośa Saivism.^[41]Adapting this form of worship also influenced the neighbouring regions of Java and Cambodia, as evidenced by the cultures and traditions of their local populations today. An example can be found in an inscription from Tra Kien in Champa, which indicates that King Prakasa-Dharma dedicated an image and temple to Valmiki. This also serves as evidence of the influence of Hinduism and its religious texts.^[42]

By the end of the ninth century, the Cham people had adapted to Hinduism. They used royal rituals to invoke God Siva to protect their territories and lineage.^[43] The Chams’ spirituality was dominated by Siva worship, and their artistic achievements reflected the same.

The second deity associated with the Siva cult was Ganesa, also called Vinayaka. It is known from an inscription^[44] that he was worshipped in a distinct temple at Po Nagar. He also had two temples at My Son. The image of Ganesa has often been found in other Saiva temples, sometimes alongside those of Goddess Bhagavati (Uma or Parvati) and Kartikeya, his mother and brother, respectively. The extant images of Ganesa at Champa are so numerous that at one time, he seemed even more popular than that of Uma, his mother.^[45]

Although not as prominent as Saivism, Vaisnavism also played an important role in Champa. While there are not many inscriptions that are distinctly Vaisnavite, the widespread influence of Vaisnavism in the region was evident from the numerous incidental references to Visnu. He was known by various names, such as Purusottama, Narayana, Hari, Govinda, Madhava, and Vikrama Tribhuvanakranta.^[46] We also studied the prevalence of worshipping Visnu alongside Goddess Lakshmi in both regions of Kalinga and Champa, highlighting their cultural and religious connections in earlier times. Prakasa-Dharma constructed a temple for Visnu Purushottama in the seventh century CE at Dong Duong. The worship of Visnu in the kingdom of Champa, as well as Jagannath at Puri in Odisha, also indicates a profound cultural relationship between the two regions.^[47]

Laksmi, also referred to as Padma and Sri in some texts, was a well-known goddess of Champa. She is mentioned multiple times in different inscriptions, and her “proverbial inconstancy” has been emphasized in various accounts. It is also well-known from the inscriptions that Laksmi is considered a symbol of sovereignty in Indian tradition. The inscriptions state that she was born in the Kailasa mountain, although Indian tradition regards her as emerging from the ocean of milk during the churning of the ocean.^[48] There is evidence of the prevalence of the worship of Goddess Shakti during the seventh and eighth centuries CE in the Kauthara region (present-day Nha Trang region) of southern Champa. Vicitrasagara constructed a temple for Devi Bhagavati in the eighth century CE and was one of the presiding deities of Champa. Conversely, around the same period, the worship of Goddess Bhagavati began at Rankada or Bankada (present-day Banapur in Odisha) on the coast of Kalinga.^[49] Therefore, it seems there was a strong cultural connection between ancient Kalinga and Champa during that period. Evidence has also shown the presence of icons of various other gods and goddesses such as Indra, Surya, Kubera, and Sarasvati, among others.

There was also a system of ‘Devadasis’—‘female dancers’—who dedicated their lives to the service of the god, a characteristic feature of Indian temples that persists in many places in both Vietnam and India. The Chams were significantly influenced by Hindu culture; they did not eat beef, widows did not remarry, and the queen performed sati after the death of the king.^[50] The enormous wealth of the temples of Champa also reminded the wealth and grandeur of the temples of India. The prevalence of Hinduism in Champa was interrupted for a time in the ninth and tenth centuries CE during the reign of Indravarman II when he built a giant Buddhist monastery^[51] in Indrapura (modern Dong Duong in the Quang Nam Province) and adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. He built a giant Buddhist monastery and meditation halls for the monks.

Around the tenth century CE, Hinduism again rose as the predominant religion. Other sites that yielded important works of religious art and architecture aside from My Son were Khuong My, Chanh Lo (Quang Nam province), and Thap Mam (Binh Dinh province).

R.C. Majumdar^[52] mentions a characteristic feature of the religious development in Champa, which entailed the spirit of tolerance marked from beginning to end. Despite the prevalence of sectarianism and the coexistence of two or three major Brahmanical sects alongside Buddhism, there is no mention of religious animosity in the region. By the late 15th century, Annam had annexed the entirety of Champa. The Chinese recognised a succession of kings from Champa until 1543; however, most of the Chams later fled to Cambodian territories in the south.^[53]

 

Conclusion

The growth of Hinduism and its religious traditions in the ancient kingdom of Champa significantly shaped the region’s religious beliefs, cultural practices, and socio-political structures. Hinduism, particularly the worship of Shiva and Vishnu along with other deities, became deeply intertwined with the spiritual lives of the Cham people, influencing everything from temple architecture to daily rituals. The construction of grand temples by the rulers symbolised their religious devotion and efforts to legitimise their authority by aligning themselves with divine powers and associating their names with the Siva-linga. Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata played a pivotal role in disseminating Hindu ideals, values, and traditions, assisting in the establishment of a unique religious identity in Champa. Over time, Hinduism in Champa facilitated a rich exchange of spiritual ideas between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia while also fortifying local religious institutions.

Though the decline of Hinduism’s legacy in Champa, prompted by the rise of Islam, eventually brought both traditional and geographical changes for the Cham people, it left an enduring mark on Cham art and culture, as well as contemporary spiritual practices. The theoretical focus should be on how religious pluralism and cultural adaptation fostered traditions that endured through centuries of transformation. There was a cultural alignment between the two regions of the world, observable through the lens of adaptation rather than mere transplantation.

Lastly, the major point to highlight is that the Indian influence had no political implications, unlike the Chinese influence, which involved absorption by the native societies in Southeast Asia. Although Vietnam was under Chinese rule and subjected to intensive Sinicisation, the Vietnamese people developed a culture that nonetheless preserved its own identity, with roots tracing back to a pre-Chinese past.

 

Author Brief Bio:Shivani Badgaiyan was a Research Fellow at India Foundation and was associated with the ongoing ICSSR-sponsored project, “History and Cultural Traditions of Kalinga and Champa: Retracing the Cultural and Civilisational Linkages,” awarded to India Foundation. She holds a postgraduate degree in Political Science from the University of Delhi.

 

References:

Basa, Kishor K. “Indian Writings on Early History and Archaeology of Southeast Asia: A Historiographical Analysis.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 8, no. 3, 1998, pp. 395.

Basa, Kishore K. “Cultural Relations between Orissa and South-East Asia: An Archaeological Perspective.” Comprehensive History and Culture of Orissa: Early Times to 1568 A.D, Vol.1, Pt.II, edited by P.K. Mishra and J.K.Samal, Kaveri Books, 1997, pp. 737.

Behera, K.S. “Maritime Contacts of Orissa: Literary and Archaeological Evidence.” Utkal Historical Research Journal, vol. 5, 1994, pp. 64.

Bhargava, Piyush. “On the Art of Champa.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 68, 2007, pp. 1460.

Boisselier, Jean. “The Art of Champa.” Hindu- Buddhist Art of Vietnam: Treasures from Champa, Emmanuel Guillon, Weatherhill, 2001, pp. 39.

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Diskul, M.C. Subhadradis. “Ancient Kingship in Mainland Southeast Asia.” Kingship in Asia and Early America, edited by A.L. Basham, Colegio de Mexico, 1981, pp. 144.

Charpentier, J. (ed.), Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Uppasala, 1922, Pt. II, pp. 61.

Chhabra, B. Ch. Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture, Oriental Publishers & Booksellers, 1965.

Gerini, G.E. Researches on Ptolemy’s Geography of Eastern Asia (Further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago), Royal Asiatic Society, 1909.

Guy, John (2011), “Pan-Asian Buddhism and the Bodhisattva Cult in Champa”, in Lockhart, Bruce; Trần, Kỳ Phương (eds.), The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 300–322.

Hall, D.G.E. A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan and Company Limited, 1955.

Hubert, Jean-François. The Art of Champa, 2005.

Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

Majumdar, R.C. Hindu Colonies in the Far East, General Printers and Publishers Limited, 1944.

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Mishra, P.P. Cultural Rapprochement between India and South East Asia, National Book Organisation, 2005.

Patnaik, A.P. “Kalingan Link with Countries of South-East Asia.” Orissa Review, vol. 48, no. 9, 1992, pp. 29.

Patra, Benudhar. “Kalinga and Champa: A Study in Ancient Maritime Relations.” Odisha Review, 2017, https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2017/November/engpdf/22-26.pdf.

Rath, P.C. “Maritime Activities of Kalinga.” Journal of Kalinga Historical Research Society, vol. 1, no. 4, 1947, pp. 350

Sarkar, H.B. Cultural Relations Between India and Southeast Asian Countries, Indian Council for Cultural Relations and Motilal Banarsidass, 1985.

Sivaramamurti C. and Deva, Krishna. “Indian Scripts and Languages in Asian Countries” India’s Contribution to World Thought and Culture, (abridged and revised edition) Vivekananda International Foundation and Aryan Books International, 2022, pp. 101.

Vickery, Michael. “Champa Revised.” The Cham of Vietnam, edited by TrầnKỳ Phương and Bruce M. Lockhart, NUS Press, 2011, pp. 364.

Yule, P. “Shankarjang- A Metals Period Burial Site in the Dhenkanal Uplands of Orissa.” South Asian Archaeology, 1987, pp. 581-584.

 

Endnotes:

^[1]Sivaramamurti C. and Deva, Krishna. “Indian Scripts and Languages in Asian Countries” India’s Contribution to World Thought and Culture, (abridged and revised edition) Vivekananda International Foundation and Aryan Books International, 2022, pp. 101.

^[2]Basa, Kishor K. “Indian Writings on Early History and Archaeology of Southeast Asia: A Historiographical Analysis.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 8, no. 3, 1998, pp. 395.

^[3] Majumdar, R.C. Hindu Colonies in the Far East, General Printers and Publishers Limited, 1944.

^[4]Patnaik, A.P. “Kalingan Link with Countries of South-East Asia.” Orissa Review, vol. 48, no. 9, 1992, pp. 29.

^[5] Ibid.

^[6]Gerini, G.E. Researches on Ptolemy’s Geography of Eastern Asia (Further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago), Royal Asiatic Society, 1909.

^[7] Sarkar, H.B. Cultural Relations Between India and Southeast Asian Countries, Indian Council for Cultural Relations and Motilal Banarsidass, 1985.

^[8] Patra, Benudhar. “Kalinga and Champa: A Study in Ancient Maritime Relations.” Odisha Review, 2017, https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2017/November/engpdf/22-26.pdf.

^[9] Mishra, P.P. Cultural Rapprochement between India and South East Asia, National Book Organisation,  2005.

^[10] An ancient Indian art style that evolved in the Amaravati region of present-day Andhra Pradesh from the 2nd century BC to the 3rd century CE.

^[11] Bhargava, Piyush. “On the Art of Champa.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 68, 2007, pp. 1460.

^[12] Hall, D.G.E. A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan and Company Limited, 1955.

^[13] Ibid, pp. 144

^[14] People of Champa, Khmer, and Funan referred to their king as Deva-raja, and the king was considered to be the protector of the faith of the region.

^[15] Siva is the god of creation and destruction and was the incarnation of creative energy, and the linga, or phallus is his symbol. Visnu is the ruler of the destinies of mankind and is known for his blessings for auspiciousness.

^[16] Basa, Kishor K. “Indian Writings on Early History and Archaeology of Southeast Asia: A Historiographical Analysis.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 8, no. 3, 1998, pp. 408.

^[17] Mishra, P.P. “India’s Historical Impact on Southeast Asia.” Education about Asia, vol. 26, no. 1, 2021, pp. 3.

^[18]Charpentier, J. (ed.), Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Uppasala, 1922, Pt. II, pp. 61.

^[19] Ibid.

^[20] Ibid.

^[21] Vickery, Michael. “Champa Revised.” The Cham of Vietnam, edited by Trần Kỳ Phương and Bruce M. Lockhart, NUS Press, 2011, pp. 364.

^[22] Bhargava, Piyush. “On the Art of Champa.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 68, 2007, pp. 1460.

^[23] Hall, D.G.E. A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan and Company Limited, 1955.

^[24] Yule, P. “Shankarjang- A Metals Period Burial Site in the Dhenkanal Uplands of Orissa.” South Asian Archaeology, 1987, pp. 581-584.

^[25] Behera, K.S. “Maritime Contacts of Orissa: Literary and Archaeological Evidence.” Utkal Historical Research Journal, vol. 5, 1994, pp. 64.

^[26] Brown, Percy. Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. Pvt. Ltd., 1959.

^[27] Basa, Kishore K. “Cultural Relations between Orissa and South-East Asia: An Archaeological Perspective.” Comprehensive History and Culture of Orissa: Early Times to 1568 A.D, Vol.1, Pt.II, edited by P.K. Mishra and J.K.Samal, Kaveri Books, 1997, pp. 737.

^[28] Bhargava, Piyush. “On the Art of Champa.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 68, 2007, pp. 1460.

^[29] Hall, D.G.E. A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan and Company Limited, 1955.

^[30] Ibid, pp. 49.

^[31] Chhabra, B. Ch. Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture, Oriental Publishers & Booksellers, 1965.

^[32] Rath, P.C. “Maritime Activities of Kalinga.” Journal of Kalinga Historical Research Society, vol. 1, no. 4, 1947, pp. 350

^[33] Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

^[34] Chhabra, B. Ch. Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture, Oriental Publishers & Booksellers, 1965.

^[35] Mishra, P.P. “India’s Historical Impact on Southeast Asia.” Education about Asia, vol. 26, no. 1, 2021, pp. 3.

^[36] Vickery, Michael. “Champa Revised.” The Cham of Vietnam, edited by Trần Kỳ Phương and Bruce M. Lockhart, NUS Press, 2011, pp. 366.

^[37] Ibid, pp. 367.

^[38] Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

^[39]Diskul, M.C. Subhadradis. “Ancient Kingship in Mainland Southeast Asia.” Kingship in Asia and Early America, edited by A.L. Basham, Colegio de Mexico, 1981, pp. 155.

^[40] Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

^[41] Hubert, Jean-François. The Art of Champa, 2005.

^[42] Patra, Benudhar. “Kalinga and Champa: A Study in Ancient Maritime Relations.” Odisha Review, 2017, https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2017/November/engpdf/22-26.pdf.

^[43] Boisselier, Jean. “The Art of Champa.” Hindu- Buddhist Art of Vietnam: Treasures from Champa, Emmanuel Guillon, Weatherhill, 2001, pp. 39.

^[44] Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

^[45] Ibid.

^[46] Ibid, pp. 193.

^[47] Patra, Benudhar. “Kalinga and Champa: A Study in Ancient Maritime Relations.” Odisha Review, 2017, https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2017/November/engpdf/22-26.pdf.

^[48] Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

^[49] Patnaik, A.P. “Kalinga Influence and Colonies in South-East Asia.” Orissa Review, vol. 42, no. 9, 1986, pp. 24-25

^[50] Mishra, P.P. “Contact between Orissa and Southeast Asia.” Journal of Orissan History, vol. 1, no. 2, 1980, pp. 18.

^[51]Guy, John (2011), “Pan-Asian Buddhism and the Bodhisattva Cult in Champa”, in Lockhart, Bruce; Trần, Kỳ Phương (eds.), The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 300–322.

^[52] Majumdar, R.C. Ancient Colonies in the Far East Vol. 1 Champa, The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, 1927.

^[53] Hall, D.G.E. A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan and Company Limited, 1955.